User:ThomasYehYeh/沙盒/伊朗罪案:修订间差异
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[[File:Energy consumption India.svg|thumb|印度能源消費結構]] |
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{{Medical}} |
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[[File:CO2 emissions India.svg|thumb|印度二氧化碳排放量。]] |
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{{Infobox drug |
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| Verifiedfields = changed |
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| Watchedfields = changed |
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| verifiedrevid = 407062079 |
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| image = EnoxaparinSodium.png |
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| width = 300 |
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| alt = |
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| image2 = Enoxaparin sodium ball-and-stick.png |
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| width2 = |
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| alt2 = |
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| caption = |
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[[印度]]於[[一次能源]]的消耗量從2013年開始已位居世界第三(參見{{le|世界能源供應與消耗|World energy supply and consumption}}),僅次於[[中國]](參見[[中華人民共和國能源政策]])和[[美國]](參見{{le|美國能源|Energy in the United States}})。<ref name=eia>{{cite web|url=http://www.eia.gov/beta/international/analysis.cfm?iso=IND&src=home-b6 |title=India was the third-largest energy consumer in 2013|access-date=2016-07-29}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usdebtclock.org/energy.html |title=World energy consumption clock |publisher=US debt clock org |access-date=2014-08-06}}</ref>於2017年,印度是全球僅次於中國的第二大[[煤]]碳消費國。 印度於2017年的[[石油]]消費量為2.21億噸,位居第三,僅次於美國和中國。<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.niti.gov.in/edm/#home|title=India energy dashboard |access-date=2022-02-17}}</ref>印度是能源淨進口國,該國一次能源的進口量佔耗用總量接近47%。<ref>{{cite web|title=India - Energy Balance 2019, NITI Aayog| url=https://niti.gov.in/edm/#balance| access-date=2021-05-31}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Indian energy Statistics 2016| url=http://mospi.nic.in/sites/default/files/publication_reports/Energy_statistics_2016.pdf| access-date=2016-11-18}}</ref> |
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<!-- Clinical data --> |
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| pronounce = |
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| tradename = Lovenox、Clexane、Xaparin和其他 |
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| Drugs.com = {{drugs.com|monograph|enoxaparin_sodium}} |
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| MedlinePlus = a696006 |
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| DailyMedID = Enoxaparin |
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| pregnancy_AU = C |
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| pregnancy_AU_comment = <ref name="Drugs.com pregnancy">{{cite web | title=Enoxaparin Use During Pregnancy | website=Drugs.com | date=2019-07-15 | url=https://www.drugs.com/pregnancy/enoxaparin.html | access-date=2020-08-16 | archive-date=2020-10-27 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201027035539/https://www.drugs.com/pregnancy/enoxaparin.html | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Enoxapo APMDS" /><ref name="Exarane APMDS" /> |
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| pregnancy_category = |
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| routes_of_administration = [[皮下注射]] , [[靜脈注射]] |
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| class = |
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| ATC_prefix = B01 |
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| ATC_suffix = AB05 |
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| ATC_supplemental = |
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| biosimilars = Arovi, Axberi,<ref name="Axberi SBD">{{cite web | title=Summary Basis of Decision (SBD) for Axberi/Axberi HP | website=[[Health Canada]] | date=2024-01-26 | url=https://dhpp.hpfb-dgpsa.ca/review-documents/resource/SBD1706623043472 | access-date=2024-02-24 | archive-date=2024-02-24 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240224070452/https://dhpp.hpfb-dgpsa.ca/review-documents/resource/SBD1706623043472 | url-status=live }}</ref> Axberi HP,<ref name="Axberi SBD" /> Exarane,<ref name="Exarane APMDS" /> Exarane Forte,<ref name="Exarane APMDS" /> Enoxapo,<ref name="Enoxapo APMDS" /> Inclunox, Inclunox HP, Inhixa, Noromby, Noromby HP, Redesca, Redesca HP, Thorinane |
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==概述== |
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<!-- Legal status --> |
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印度於2022-2023財政年度期間的人均一次能源供應總量 (Total Primary Energy Supply,TPES) 為25,745百萬焦耳(mega joule),而最終人均消費總量為16,699百萬焦耳。 同期人均用電量為1,015千瓦時(kWh),農業的{{le|能源強度|Energy intensity}}比工業低七倍(見表8.9<ref name=mspi/>) |
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| legal_AU = S4 |
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| legal_AU_comment = <ref name="Enoxapo APMDS">{{cite web | title=Enoxapo Australian prescription medicine decision summary | website=Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA) | date=2020-02-28 | url=https://www.tga.gov.au/apm-summary/enoxapo | access-date= 2020-08-17 | archive-date=2020-02-26 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200226120650/https://www.tga.gov.au/apm-summary/enoxapo | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Exarane APMDS">{{cite web | title=Exarane/Exarane Forte | website=Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA) | date=2023-08-07 | url=https://www.tga.gov.au/resources/auspmd/exaraneexarane-forte | access-date=2024-07-04 | archive-date=2024-01-02 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240102022215/https://www.tga.gov.au/resources/auspmd/exaraneexarane-forte | url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=AusPAR: Exarane/Exarane Forte | website=Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA) | date=2024-03-04 | url=https://www.tga.gov.au/resources/auspar/auspar-exaraneexarane-forte | access-date=2024-03-31 | archive-date=31 March 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240331035015/https://www.tga.gov.au/resources/auspar/auspar-exaraneexarane-forte | url-status=live }}</ref> |
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| legal_BR = <!-- OTC, A1, A2, A3, B1, B2, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, D1, D2, E, F --> |
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| legal_BR_comment = |
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| legal_CA = Rx-only |
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| legal_CA_comment = /{{nbsp}}Schedule D<ref>{{cite web | title=Summary Basis of Decision - Elonox/Elonox HP | website=[[Health Canada]] | date=2023-03-28 | url=https://hpr-rps.hres.ca/reg-content/summary-basis-decision-detailTwo.php?linkID=SBD00632&lang=en | access-date=2023-04-24 | archive-date=2023-04-25 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230425001504/https://hpr-rps.hres.ca/reg-content/summary-basis-decision-detailTwo.php?linkID=SBD00632&lang=en | url-status=live }}</ref> |
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| legal_DE = <!-- Anlage I, II, III or Unscheduled --> |
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| legal_DE_comment = |
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| legal_NZ = <!-- Class A, B, C --> |
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| legal_NZ_comment = |
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| legal_UK = POM |
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| legal_UK_comment = <ref name="Clexane Forte SmPC" /> |
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| legal_US = Rx-only |
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| legal_US_comment = <ref name="FDA Lovenox label">{{cite web | title=Lovenox- enoxaparin sodium injection | work = DailyMed | publisher = U.S. National Library of Medicine | date=2020-04-28 | url=https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=5017a927-2a24-4f27-89f9-27c805bf7d59 | access-date=2020-08-16 | archive-date=2020-08-24 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804165635/https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=5017a927-2a24-4f27-89f9-27c805bf7d59 | url-status=live }}</ref> |
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| legal_EU = Rx-only |
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| legal_EU_comment = <ref name="Inhixa EPAR" /> |
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| legal_UN = <!-- N I, II, III, IV / P I, II, III, IV --> |
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| legal_UN_comment = |
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| legal_status = <!-- For countries not listed above --> |
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{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:right" |
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<!-- Pharmacokinetic data --> |
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| 各年度能源消耗量<ref name=mspi>{{cite web | url=https://www.mospi.gov.in/sites/default/files/publication_reports/EnergyStatistics_India_publication_2024N.pdf?download=1 | title= Energy Statistics_India 2024|publisher= Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, India |access-date=2024-03-16}}</ref> |
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| bioavailability = |
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|- |
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| protein_bound = |
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! 財政年度 |
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| metabolism = |
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! 年中人口<br/>(百萬) |
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| metabolites = |
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! 煤碳<br/>(百萬公噸) |
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| onset = |
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! [[褐煤]]<br/>(百萬公噸) |
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| elimination_half-life = 4.5小時 |
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! 原油<br/>(百萬公噸) |
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| duration_of_action = |
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! [[天然氣]]<br/>(十億立方米) |
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| excretion = |
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! 電力@<br/>(十億千瓦時) |
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! [[二氧化碳]]排放當量<br/>(百萬公噸)<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.energyinst.org/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/1055542/EI_Stat_Review_PDF_single_3.pdf1 | title= Statistical Review of World Energy 2023|publisher= The Energy Institute |access-date=2024-03-16}}</ref> |
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|- |
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| align="left" | 2013-14 || 1,252 || 739 || 44 || 222 ||52 ||874 ||2,087.5 |
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|- |
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| align="left" | 2014-15 || 1,268|| 822 || 47 || 223 || 51 || 948||2,248.1 |
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|- |
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| align="left" | 2015-16 || 1,284 || 837 || 42 || 233 || 53 || 1,001||2,321.4 |
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|- |
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| align="left" | 2016-17 || 1,299 || 837 || 43 || 245 || 56 || 1,061||2,425.2 |
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|- |
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| align="left" | 2017-18 || 1,313 || 898|| 46|| 252 || 59|| 1,123||2,493.6 |
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|- |
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| align="left" | 2018-19 || 1,328 || 968 || 46 || 257 || 61 || 1,209||2,613.2 |
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|- |
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| align="left" | 2019-20 || 1,342 || 956 || 42 || 254 || 64 || 1,248||2,645.4 |
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|- |
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| align="left" | 2020-21 || 1,357 || 906 || 38 || 222 ||61 || 1,230||2,450.3 |
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|- |
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| align="left" | 2021-22 || 1,370 || 1,028 || 49 || 242 || 64 || 1,316||2,700.5 |
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|- |
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| align="left" | 2022-23 || 1,383 || 1,115 || 47 || 255 || 60 || 1,403||2,865.2 |
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@ 包含由[[化石燃料]]生產的電力。 |
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{{Pie chart |
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<!-- Identifiers --> |
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|thumb = right |
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| CAS_number_Ref = {{cascite|correct|??}} |
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|caption = '''印度於2017年的一次能源總消費量為753.7{{le|公噸油當量|Tonne of oil equivalent|Mtoe}}(未包括傳統[[生物質]]能源)。'''<ref name=srwe>{{cite web | url=https://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/en/corporate/pdf/energy-economics/statistical-review/bp-stats-review-2018-full-report.pdf | title= BP Statistical Review of world energy 2018| access-date=2018-06-17}}</ref> |
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| CAS_number = 679809-58-6 |
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|label1 = 煤碳424.0Mtoe |color1 = Black |
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| CAS_supplemental = |
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| |
|value1 = 56.26 |
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|label2 = 石油與其他液體燃料222.1Mtoe|color4 = gold |
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| IUPHAR_ligand = 6811 |
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|value2 = 29.47 |
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| DrugBank_Ref = {{drugbankcite|changed|drugbank}} |
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|label3 = 天然氣46.6Mtoe|color3 = #FF6600 |
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| DrugBank = DB01225 |
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|value3 = 6.18 |
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| ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|changed|chemspider}} |
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|label4 = [[核子動力|核能]]8.5Mtoe|color5 = Red |
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| ChemSpiderID = none |
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|value4 = 1.13 |
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| UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|changed|FDA}} |
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|label5 = [[水力發電]]30.7Mtoe|color6 = DodgerBlue |
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| UNII = 8NZ41MIK1O |
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|value5 = 4.07 |
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| KEGG_Ref = {{keggcite|correct|kegg}} |
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|label6 = 其他[[再生能源]]21.8Mtoe |color7 = Green |
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| KEGG = D07510 |
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|value6 = 2.89 |
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| ChEBI_Ref = |
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| ChEBI = |
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| ChEMBL_Ref = {{ebicite|changed|EBI}} |
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| ChEMBL = 1201685 |
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| NIAID_ChemDB = |
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| PDB_ligand = |
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| synonyms = |
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<!-- Chemical and physical data --> |
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| IUPAC_name = |
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| chemical_formula = (C<sub>26</sub>H<sub>40</sub>N<sub>2</sub>O<sub>36</sub>S<sub>5</sub>)n |
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| C= | H= | Ag= | Al= | As= | Au= | B= | Bi= | Br= | Ca= | Cl= | Co= | F= | Fe= | Gd= | I= |
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| K= | Li= | Mg= | Mn= | N= | Na= | O= | P= | Pt= | S= | Sb= | Se= | Sr= | Tc= | Zn= | charge= |
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| molecular_weight = 4500 |
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| molecular_weight_comment = g/mol (average) |
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| SMILES = |
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| StdInChI = |
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| StdInChI_comment = |
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| StdInChIKey = |
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| density = |
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| density_notes = |
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| melting_point = |
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| melting_high = |
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| melting_notes = |
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| boiling_point = |
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| boiling_notes = |
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| solubility = |
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| sol_units = |
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| specific_rotation = |
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}} |
}} |
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{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:right" |
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| 印度能源<ref name=IEA2015>IEA Key World Energy Statistics Statistics [http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/KeyWorld_Statistics_2015.pdf 2015] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304040322/http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/KeyWorld_Statistics_2015.pdf |date=2016-03-04 }}, [http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/keyworld2014.pdf 2014 (2012R as in November 2015] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150405035039/http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/keyworld2014.pdf |date=2015-04-05 }} 2012 as in March 2014 is comparable to previous years statistical calculation criteria, [http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/KeyWorld2013.pdf 2013] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140902105825/http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/KeyWorld2013.pdf |date=2014-09-02 }}, [http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/kwes.pdf 2012] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130309143010/http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/kwes.pdf |date=2013-03-09 }}, [http://www.iea.org/textbase/nppdf/free/2011/key_world_energy_stats.pdf 2011] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111027013037/http://www.iea.org/textbase/nppdf/free/2011/key_world_energy_stats.pdf |date=2011-10-27 }}, [http://www.iea.org/textbase/nppdf/free/2010/key_stats_2010.pdf 2010] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101011091637/http://www.iea.org/textbase/nppdf/free/2010/key_stats_2010.pdf |date=2010-10-11 }}, [http://www.iea.org/textbase/nppdf/free/2009/key2009.pdf 2009] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131007042901/http://www.iea.org/textbase/nppdf/free/2009/key2009.pdf |date=2013-10-07 }}, [http://www.iea.org/textbase/nppdf/free/2006/key2006.pdf 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091012043312/http://www.iea.org/textbase/nppdf/free/2006/key2006.pdf |date=2009-10-12 }} [[International Energy Agency|IEA]] October, crude oil p.11, coal p. 13 gas p. 15</ref> |
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|- |
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! |
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! 人口<br/>百萬 |
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! 一次能源<br/>太瓦時(TWh,百萬百萬瓦時) |
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! 生產<br/>太瓦時 |
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! 進口<br/>太瓦時 |
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! 電力<br/>太瓦時 |
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! 二氧化碳排放量<br/>百萬噸 |
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|- |
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| align="left" | 2004 || 1,080 || 6,662 || 5,430 || 1,230 || 494 || 1,103 |
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|- |
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| align="left" | 2007 || 1,123|| 6,919 || 5,244 || 1,745 || 610 || 1,324 |
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|- |
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| align="left" | 2008 || 1,140 || 7, 222 || 5,446 || 1,836 || 645 || 1,428 |
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|- |
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| align="left" | 2009 || 1,155 || 7,860 || 5,844 || 2,116 || 690 || 1,586 |
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|- |
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| align="left" | 2010 || 1,171 || 8,056|| 6,032|| 2,110 || 755|| 1,626 |
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|- |
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| align="left" | 2012 || 1,241 || 8,716 || 6,291 || 2,483 || 835 || 1,745 |
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|- |
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| align="left" | 2012R || 1,237 || 9,166 || 6,333 || 2,829 || 940 || 1,954 |
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|- |
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| align="left" | 2013 || 1,250 || 9,018 || 6,086 || 2,962 || 979 || 1,869 |
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|- |
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| align="left" | Change 2004–10 || 8.4% || 20.9% || 11.1% || 72% || 53% || 47.4% |
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|- |
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| align="left" colspan=7 | <small> Mtoe = 11.63太瓦時,核能電廠的熱能利用率約為33%,高於傳統火力發電廠的<ref name=Sverigetab49>[http://webbshop.cm.se/System/TemplateView.aspx?p=Energimyndigheten&view=default&cat=/Broschyrer&id=e0a2619a83294099a16519a0b5edd26f Energy in Sweden 2010] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131016045634/http://webbshop.cm.se/System/TemplateView.aspx?p=Energimyndigheten&view=default&cat=/Broschyrer&id=e0a2619a83294099a16519a0b5edd26f |date=2013-10-16 }}, Facts and figures, The Swedish Energy Agency, Table 8 Losses in nuclear power stations Table 9 Nuclear power brutto</ref></small> |
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<small>2012R = 由於計算二氧化碳的方式改變,因而更新的數字 </small> |
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==煤炭== |
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{{see also|{{le|各國煤碳儲量列表|List of countries by coal reserves}}|{{le|印度煤炭|coal in India}}}} |
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[[File:Coal production of India.svg|thumb|印度煤碳生產。]] |
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印度是全球第二大煤碳生產國,同時也是第二大煤碳進口國。於[[印度奧里薩邦]][[塔爾切爾]]的煤化肥廠正處於最終建設階段,預定年產能為121萬噸[[尿素]] - 使用當地煤碳和原油煉油廠副產品[[石油焦]]作為原料。印度計劃到2030年使用1億噸煤碳進行氣化,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newslaundry.com/amp/story/2024/03/30/carbon-omissions-indias-coal-gasification-plans-are-ambitious-but-face-an-uphill-task|title=Carbon omissions: India’s coal gasification plans are ambitious but face an uphill task|access-date=2024-04-01}}</ref>所得[[煤氣]](主要成分為[[一氧化碳]]和[[氫]]氣)是合成[[氨]]的重要原料,合成氨將用於生產尿素、[[硝酸銨]]等[[氮肥]]。 |
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該國於2019-2020財政年度的煤碳和褐煤產量為7.31億噸。<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://coaldashboard.cmpdi.co.in/dashboard.php|title=Koyala Darpan / Coal Dashboard|access-date=2022-02-17}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/file/ProvisionalCoalStatistics2019-20.pdf|title=Provisional Coal Statistics 2019-20|access-date=2021-01-27}}</ref>印度於2017年是世界第四大煤碳生產國,產量為294.2Mtoe(佔全球產量7.8%)。印度有近80%的發電量(公用事業和事業自備產量合計)由煤碳生產,<ref name=srwe/>是該國[[溫室氣體排放]]的主要來源。 |
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[[綠色和平組織]]稱印度最大的煤碳產地位於[[賈坎德邦]]的[[賈里亞]],賈里亞在煤礦開採之前有森林,當地部落居住於其中。於賈里亞的煤礦公司於1971年被{{le|印度煤碳部|Ministry of Coal}}轄下孫公司{{le|巴拉特焦煤有限公司|Bharat Coking Coal Limited}} (BCCL) 接管,成為國營公司。<ref name=truecost>[http://www.greenpeace.org/raw/content/international/press/reports/true-cost-coal.pdf "The True Cost of Coal"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081130101613/http://www.greenpeace.org/raw/content/international/press/reports/true-cost-coal.pdf |date=2008-11-30 }} Greenpeace 2008-11-27 pp. 24–29</ref> |
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印度是世界上最頻繁發生{{le|煤層火災|coal seam fire}}的國家。礦區附近的空氣、水和土地因此受到嚴重的污染。<ref name="truecost"/> |
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截至2019年,印度的煤碳生產已被納入中央政府管轄,<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.brookings.edu/research/coal-in-india/|title=Coal in India|last=Gross|first=Rahul Tongia and Samantha|date=2019-03-08|website=Brookings|language=en-US|access-date=2019-10-26}}</ref> 例如政府擁有{{le|印度煤炭有限公司|Coal India}}約75%的股份,該公司供應印度約84%的動力煤。<ref name=":0"/> |
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由於印度沒適合生產鋼鐵用的優質[[焦炭]]礦藏,而必須進口。 該國於2021-2022財政年度進口近5,716萬噸焦炭(為同年消費量63.74噸約90%)。.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/file/import of coal.pdf|title=Import of coal - Trends and issue of self reliance|access-date=2022-12-26}}</ref> 採[[直接還原鐵]]法生產鐵和鋼並未用到焦炭,因而不受焦炭或天然氣供應量的影響。<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.livemint.com/companies/news/jspl-resumes-operations-in-coal-gasification-plant-in-odisha-s-angul-district-11578977735242.html|title=JSPL's 1.8 MTPA coal gasification based DRI plant resumes operations in Angul|access-date=2020-01-14}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ispatguru.com/coal-gasification-based-production-of-direct-reduced-iron/|title=Coal Gasification based Production of Direct Reduced Iron|access-date=2020-01-25}}</ref> |
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==石油與天然氣== |
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'''依諾肝素鈉'''({{lang-en|Enoxaparin sodium}})以Lovenox等商品名在市面上銷售,是一種[[抗凝劑]](抗凝血藥),<ref name=AHFS2016/>用於治療和預防[[深靜脈栓塞]](DVT)和[[肺栓塞]](PE),包括於[[妊娠|懷孕]]期間和某些手術後使用。<ref name=AHFS2016/>它也用於治療[[急性冠狀動脈症候群]](ACS)和[[心臟病]]患者,<ref name=AHFS2016/>也在血液[[透析]]期間使用。<ref name="Clexane Forte SmPC">{{cite web | title=Clexane Forte Syringes - Summary of Product Characteristics (SmPC) | website=emc | url=https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/product/1695/smpc | access-date=2020-10-12 | archive-date=2018-09-26 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180926014357/https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/product/1695/smpc | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Inhixa EPAR" />此藥物透過[[皮下注射]]或[[靜脈注射]]方式給藥。<ref name=AHFS2016/> |
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{{main|{{le|印度能源政策|Energy policy of India}}|{{le|印度油氣產業|Oil and gas industry in India}}}} |
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印度是全球第三大原油消費國,於2017年的消費量為2.21億噸(全球佔比為4.8%)。該國於2019年進口2.053億噸原油及石油產品,是全球第二大進口國。<ref name=bp20>{{cite web | url=https://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/business-sites/en/global/corporate/pdfs/energy-economics/statistical-review/bp-stats-review-2020-full-report.pdf | title= Statistical Review of World Energy 2020 (page 31)| access-date=2021-01-06}}</ref>印度於2017年擁有每天4.972億桶的煉油能力,全球排名第四(佔比為5.1%)。<ref name=srwe/> |
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使用後常見的副作用有[[出血]]、[[發燒]]和[[水腫]]。<ref name=AHFS2016/>出血可能導致嚴重的後果,特別是在進行[[腰椎穿刺]]之後。<ref name=AHFS2016/>懷孕期間使用似乎對胎兒安全。<ref name=AHFS2016/>依諾肝素鈉由[[肝素]]製成,<ref name=Net2008>{{cite book | author = Northern Neonatal Network | chapter = Enoxaparin |title=Neonatal Formulary: Drug Use in Pregnancy and the First Year of Life|date=2008|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=9780470750353|page=96| chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=aumIBqHmChwC&pg=PA96|language=en|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220133303/https://books.google.ca/books?id=aumIBqHmChwC&pg=PA96|archive-date=2016-12-20}}</ref>屬於{{le|低分子量肝素|Low-molecular-weight heparin}}藥物家族。<ref name=AHFS2016/> |
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==液化石油氣== |
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依諾肝素鈉於1981年研發成功,並於1993年獲得核准用於醫療用途。<ref name=Net2008/><ref name=AHFS2016>{{cite web|title=Enoxaparin Sodium|url=https://www.drugs.com/monograph/enoxaparin-sodium.html|publisher=The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists|access-date=2016-12-08|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221011322/https://www.drugs.com/monograph/enoxaparin-sodium.html|archive-date=2016-12-21}}</ref>它已被納入[[世界衛生組織基本藥物標準清單]]之中。<ref name="WHO21st">{{cite book | vauthors = ((World Health Organization)) | title = World Health Organization model list of essential medicines: 21st list 2019 | year = 2019 | hdl = 10665/325771 | author-link = World Health Organization | publisher = World Health Organization | location = Geneva | id = WHO/MVP/EMP/IAU/2019.06. License: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO | hdl-access=free }}</ref>在市面上已有多個品牌,也有其[[通用名藥物]]流通。<ref name=AHFS2016/>此藥物於2020年在美國最常使用[[處方藥]]中排名第350,開立的處方箋數量超過50萬張。<ref>{{cite web | title = Enoxaparin - Drug Usage Statistics | website = ClinCalc | url = https://clincalc.com/DrugStats/Drugs/Enoxaparin | access-date = 2022-10-07 | archive-date =2022-11-07 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20221107021541/https://clincalc.com/DrugStats/Drugs/Enoxaparin | url-status = live }}</ref> |
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[[File:Liquefied petroleum gas cylinders.jpg|thumb|印度裝LPG的鋼瓶。 ]] |
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印度於2019年4月至9月期間(六個月)共消費1,093.7萬噸[[液化石油氣]] (LPG),主要用於烹飪。<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ppac.gov.in/WriteReadData/Reports/201911220459272617502WebVersionLPGProfile1.10.2019.pdf |title=LPG Profile 2019 |access-date=2019-12-03}}</ref>印度國內使用LPG的用戶有2.74億戶(平均一戶有5人),在市場流通的LPG鋼瓶超過4億只,連結起來總長度可達20萬公里,超過印度鋪設鐵路的總長度。<ref>{{cite web|url=https://energy.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/oil-and-gas/lpg-cylinder-now-used-by-89-households/66930301 |title=LPG cylinder now used by 89% households|access-date=2018-12-05}}</ref>印度是全球第二大LPG消費國,大部分仰賴進口。<ref>{{cite web|url=https://energy.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/oil-and-gas/india-challenges-china-as-worlds-biggest-lpg-importer/62263809|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171227180358/https://energy.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/oil-and-gas/india-challenges-china-as-worlds-biggest-lpg-importer/62263809|url-status=dead|archive-date=2017-12-27|title=India challenges China as world's biggest LPG importer|access-date= 2017-12-27}}</ref>印度城市中少有大規模的輸送燃氣管道系統。<ref>{{cite web|url=https://energy.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/oil-and-gas/pm-modi-says-70-of-indias-population-will-have-city-gas-facility-in-2-3-years/66752204|title= PM Modi says 70% of India's population will have city gas facility in 2-3 years|access-date=2018-11-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://gailebank.gail.co.in/goga/NewApplication/index.html#existing-customer|title= Map of GAIL's Natural Gas Pipelines|access-date=2018-11-22}}</ref> |
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==醫療用途== |
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*與[[乙醯柳酸|阿斯匹靈]]同時服用,以治療不穩定型[[心絞痛]] (UA) 和非心電圖ST段升高型[[心肌梗塞]] (NSTEMI) |
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*臥床患者的DVT和PE預防 |
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*膝關節置換手術中的DVT預防 |
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*髖關節置換手術中的DVT預防 |
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*腹部手術中的DVT預防 |
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*伴隨或不伴隨肺栓塞的DVT治療 |
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*心電圖ST段升高型心肌梗塞 (STEMI) 患者住院的DVT治療<ref name="FDA Lovenox label" /> |
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*[[凝血酶原時間]]國際標準化比值(INR)低於治療範圍患者的過渡治療(當患者使用口服抗凝劑的INR值低於預期的治療範圍時,醫師使用其他抗凝劑(如低分子量肝素)進行短期治療,以降低血栓形成風險。) |
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==生物質和木炭== |
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===監控=== |
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{{see also|{{le|印度電力產業#生物質發電|Electricity sector in India#Biomass power}}}} |
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依諾肝素鈉具有可預測的吸收、[[生物利用度]]和體內分佈,通常個體使用後不需監測。然而在某些情況下進行監測對特殊族群(例如腎功能不全或肥胖者)可能有益。在此情況下,可測量抗Xa因子單位(衡量低分子肝素抗凝效果的指標,參見{{le|低分子量肝素#醫療用途|Low-molecular-weight heparin#Medical use}})並調整劑量。<ref name="FDA Lovenox label" /> |
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生物質是一種再生能源,可用於生產[[生物燃料]]([[碳中性燃料]])或有機化學品。<ref>{{cite web|title=Carbon Neutral Fuels and Chemicals from Standalone Biomass Refineries |url=https://www.ijee.latticescipub.com/wp-content/uploads/papers/v3i2/B1845113223.pdf|access-date=2023-12-03}}</ref>[[植物]]在[[光合作用]]過程中會吸收二氧化碳,由此產生的生物質經燃燒時又將二氧化碳釋放。印度目前有20%的家庭會使用生物質和[[木炭]]作為烹飪用燃料,而使用LPG的家庭數量正迅速增加中,。<ref>{{cite web| url=https://energy.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/oil-and-gas/nearly-80-of-indian-households-now-have-access-to-lpg-gas/63226987 |title= Nearly 80% of Indian households now have access to LPG gas |access-date=2018-03-09}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://energy.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/power/niti-aayog-pitches-for-round-the-clock-power-for-all-electric-vehicles/60217855|title=NITI Aayog pitches for round-the-clock power for all-electric vehicles |access-date=2017-08-25}}</ref>此外還有少量的生物質用於商業烹飪、發電、加工業等。印度在2013年的生物質使用量接近177百萬噸Mtoe。<ref name=eia/> 大量的作物秸稈也在農田中焚燒,以騰出空間供下一季作物種植用。印度每年約有7.5億噸的生物質廢棄物,這些資源若能有效轉換,不僅可降低環境負擔,還能帶來可觀的經濟效益。<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2021/Jan/IRENA_Innovation_Renewable_Methanol_2021.pdf|title=Renewable Methanol|access-date=2021-05-19}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/maharashtra-punjab-top-producers-of-green-energy-from-farm-waste/article1-1385893.aspx|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150831190140/http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/maharashtra-punjab-top-producers-of-green-energy-from-farm-waste/article1-1385893.aspx|url-status=dead|archive-date=2015-08-31|title=Maharashtra, Punjab top producers of green energy from farm waste |access-date=2015-08-31}}</ref> |
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===逆轉劑=== |
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{{le|硫酸魚精蛋白|Protamine sulfate}}逆轉依諾肝素鈉抗凝血作用的效果會低於逆轉肝素的,只能中和大約60%的抗Xa因子作用。<ref name="FDA Lovenox label" /> |
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印度進口大量煤碳,經粉碎後用於[[燃煤發電廠|發電]]。由於生物質有{{le|結塊|caking}}問題,難以磨成細粉,不適合在此類磨粉機中處理。然而100%的生物質可經[[焦化]]後再磨粉,用來取代煤碳。<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sari-energy.org/PageFiles/What_We_Do/activities/worldbiofuelsmarkets/Presentations/BiofuelsShippingStorageLogistics/Michael_Wild.pdf|title=The upgrading of solid biomasss by means of Torrefaction|access-date=2014-09-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303230838/http://www.sari-energy.org/PageFiles/What_We_Do/activities/worldbiofuelsmarkets/Presentations/BiofuelsShippingStorageLogistics/Michael_Wild.pdf|archive-date=2016-03-03|url-status=dead}}</ref>可利用現有的燃煤發電廠煙道氣作為熱源將生物質焦化,而後與煤碳聯合使用。根據歐洲電廠的經驗,可加入20%焦化後的生物質與煤碳{{le|混燒|cofiring}},而無結渣或結垢問題。<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iea-coal.org.uk/documents/83524/9188/Henderson---Cofiring-of-biomass-in-coal-fired-power-plants-–-European-experience|title=Cofiring of biomass in coal-fired power plants – European experience|access-date=2014-09-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161012153412/http://www.iea-coal.org.uk/documents/83524/9188/Henderson---Cofiring-of-biomass-in-coal-fired-power-plants-–-European-experience|archive-date=2016-10-12|url-status=dead}}</ref>在印度西北和南部地區可將農業/作物殘留物取代進口煤碳,否則任其在田間燃燒反會造成污染問題。[33]當印度家庭大量使用LPG取代傳統的生物質作為烹飪燃料,農業生物質在田地中燃燒的數量可能因而增加,而導致更高的空氣污染問題。<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/delhi-news/pollution-delhi-gets-whiff-of-hope-as-ntpc-steps-in-to-buy-crop-residue-from-farmers/story-nmfwHl5bDCgdi5ImQPtNQM.html| title=Air Pollution: Delhi sees hope as NTPC steps in to buy crop residue from farmers|access-date= 201-09-257}}</ref> |
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===懷孕=== |
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*[[美國食品藥物管理局]](FDA)將依諾肝素鈉歸為B類妊娠藥物,表示個體在懷孕期間使用將不會對胎兒兒造成傷害。<ref name="FDA Lovenox label" /> |
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*依諾肝素鈉不會穿過[[胎盤]],因此胎兒不太可能接觸到此藥物。<ref name="FDA Lovenox label" /> |
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*曾有一些懷孕期間使用依諾肝素鈉婦女報告胎兒死亡的案例,但尚不清楚是否由依諾肝素導致。<ref name="FDA Lovenox label" /> |
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*商品名為Lovenox的依諾肝素鈉注射液,為延長藥效,添加有[[苯甲醇]]作為防腐劑,每毫升含有15毫克。雖然Lovenox廣泛用於孕婦,但研究發現,早產嬰兒對苯甲醇的耐受性較差。若早產兒攝入過量苯甲醇(每天每公斤體重99至405毫克),可能引發嚴重的喘息症候群。。<ref name="FDA Lovenox label" /><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gershanik J, Boecler B, Ensley H, McCloskey S, George W | title = The gasping syndrome and benzyl alcohol poisoning | journal = The New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 307 | issue = 22 | pages = 1384–1388 | date = November 1982 | pmid = 7133084 | doi = 10.1056/NEJM198211253072206 }}</ref> |
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*依諾肝素鈉用於預防血栓,但僅懷孕本身就會增加孕婦發生血栓的風險,即使用像依諾肝素鈉這樣的抗凝血劑,仍須十分謹慎。<ref name="FDA Lovenox label" /> |
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主要成分為[[甲烷]]的[[生物燃氣]],也可通過培養{{le|甲基球菌|Methylococcus capsulatus}},以極少的土地和水資源生產出富含[[蛋白質]]的飼料,供[[家牛]]、[[家禽]]和魚類養殖用途。 <ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.ntva.no/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/04-huslid.pdf |title=BioProtein Production |access-date=2018-01-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170510151825/http://www.ntva.no/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/04-huslid.pdf |archive-date=2017-05-10 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/2112298-food-made-from-natural-gas-will-soon-feed-farm-animals-and-us/ |title=Food made from natural gas will soon feed farm animals – and us |access-date=2018-01-31}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cargill.com/2016/new-venture-selects-cargill-tennessee-to-produce-feedkind |title=New venture selects Cargill's Tennessee site to produce Calysta FeedKind® Protein |access-date=2018-01-31}}</ref>工廠產生的二氧化碳廢氣可以低成本方式生產{{le|藻類油|seaweed oil}},尤其適合在印度等[[熱帶]]國家發展,未來或可取代以石油為主的地位。<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.greencarcongress.com/2015/01/20150121-algenol.html#more |title=Algenol and Reliance launch algae fuels demonstration project in India |access-date=2017-05-29}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://oilprice.com/Latest-Energy-News/World-News/ExxonMobil-Announces-Breakthrough-In-Renewable-Energy.html |title=ExxonMobil Announces Breakthrough In Renewable Energy |access-date=2017-06-20}}</ref>印度政府正在推動許多計劃以有效利用農村地區的農業廢棄物或生物質,以提升當地經濟和就業潛力。<ref>{{cite web |url=https://energy.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/oil-and-gas/indrapratha-gas-mahindra-mahindra-join-hands-to-stop-stubble-burning/62986917|title=Indrapratha Gas, Mahindra & Mahindra join hands to stop stubble burning|access-date=2018-02-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://energy.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/oil-and-gas/modi-govt-plans-gobar-dhan-scheme-to-convert-cattle-dung-into-energy/63028408|title=Modi govt plans Gobar-Dhan scheme to convert cattle dung into energy|access-date=2018-02-22}}</ref> |
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==副作用== |
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'''不常見 (<1%)''' |
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*對不穩定型心絞痛或非Q波心肌梗塞患(心電圖上沒有出現新的Q波,參見[[心肌梗塞#心電圖]])者: |
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**[[心房顫動]]、[[心臟衰竭]]、[[肺水腫]]、[[肺炎]]:≥0.5%v |
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==生物燃料== |
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'''常見 (>1%)''' |
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{{see also|{{le|印度生物燃料|Biofuel in India}}|{{le|世界各區域生物燃料#印度|Biofuels by region#India}}}} |
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*{{le|血小板減少症|Thrombocytopenia}},可能與{{le|肝素誘發血小板減少症|heparin-induced thrombocytopenia}}相關(接受至少五天治療的人的發生率為0.5-5.0%)<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Levy JH, Tanaka KA, Hursting MJ | title = Reducing thrombotic complications in the perioperative setting: an update on heparin-induced thrombocytopenia | journal = Anesthesia and Analgesia | volume = 105 | issue = 3 | pages = 570–582 | date = September 2007 | pmid = 17717208 | doi = 10.1213/01.ane.0000277497.70701.47 | s2cid = 25103749 | doi-access = free }}</ref> |
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*血清[[轉氨酶]]升高:5.9%-6.1%<ref name="FDA Lovenox label" /> |
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*對於接受腹部或大腸直腸手術的人: |
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**出血、[[貧血]]、[[瘀斑]]:≥2%<ref name="FDA Lovenox label" /> |
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*對於接受髖關節或膝關節置換術的人: |
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**發燒、[[噁心]]、貧血、水腫、週邊水腫:≥2%<ref name="FDA Lovenox label" /> |
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*對於急性疾病期間活動能力嚴重受限的人: |
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**[[呼吸困難]]、血小板減少症、神智不清、[[腹瀉]]、噁心:≥2%<ref name="FDA Lovenox label" /> |
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*在接受深部靜脈血栓治療的患者中: |
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**注射部位出血、注射部位疼痛、[[血尿]]:≥2%<ref name="FDA Lovenox label" /> |
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印度的石油產品中有85%依賴進口,於2020-2021財政年度的進口金額為550億美元。該國設定目標,到2025年將在汽油中混入20%乙醇,而節省40億美元(或3,000億印度盧比)的進口替代成本。印度政府也提供財政支持,利用[[稻]]米、[[小麥]]、[[大麥]]、[[玉米]]、[[高粱]]、[[甘蔗]]、[[甜菜]]等生產乙醇,<ref name=bioeth1>[https://theprint.in/opinion/india-wants-to-use-foodgrain-for-ethanol-thats-a-problem-in-a-hungry-country/686707/ India wants to use food grain stock for ethanol. That’s a problem in a hungry country], The Print, 2021-07-01.</ref>在2016年,印度全國的汽油中平均摻有3.3%乙醇,這是印度歷年來乙醇在汽油中的比例最高的一年。<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=https://gain.fas.usda.gov/Recent GAIN Publications/Biofuels Annual_New Delhi_India_6-27-2017.pdf|title=USDA Foreign Agricultural Service, GAIN Report}}</ref> |
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'''對出現頻率監測''' |
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*局部反應:局部不適、[[疼痛]]、[[血腫]]、瘀斑、[[紅斑]]<ref name="FDA Lovenox label" /> |
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*出血<ref name="FDA Lovenox label" /> |
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*[[高血鉀症]]<ref name="FDA Lovenox label" /> |
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*{{le|轉氨酶升高|elevated transaminases}}<ref name="FDA Lovenox label" /> |
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== |
==電力== |
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[[File:India electricity production.svg|thumb|印度電力生產|200px]] |
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FDA於2013年10月發佈對依諾肝素鈉[[黑框警告]]<ref> "FDA-sourced list of all drugs with black box warnings (Use Download Full Results and View Query links.)". nctr-crs.fda.gov. FDA. Retrieved 2023-10-22.</ref>的修訂,<ref name="DailyMed">{{Cite web|title = ENOXAPARIN SODIUM- enoxaparin sodium injection|url = http://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=3e6bf2b3-9339-4104-bda3-ad86a1949703#S2 | work = DailyMed | publisher = U.S. National Library of Medicine |access-date = 2015-11-05|url-status = live|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151019091929/http://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=3e6bf2b3-9339-4104-bda3-ad86a1949703#S2|archive-date = 2015-10-19}}</ref>建議服用依諾肝素鈉者,在進行腰椎穿刺或神經軸麻醉中,放置和拔除脊髓[[醫用導管|導管]]之時需要謹慎,<ref name="Center for Drug Evaluation and Research">{{Cite web|title = Drug Safety and Availability - FDA Drug Safety Communication: Updated recommendations to decrease risk of spinal column bleeding and paralysis in patients on low molecular weight heparins|url = https://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/ucm373595.htm |access-date = 2015-11-05| work = Center for Drug Evaluation and Research | publisher = U.S. Food and Drug Administration |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151030045440/https://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/ucm373595.htm |archive-date = 2015-10-30 }}</ref>或有必要延遲這些人的依諾肝素鈉(抗凝血劑)給藥,以降低脊髓或硬膜外血腫的風險,因為如此可能導致永久性或長期癱瘓。<ref name="Center for Drug Evaluation and Research" />具有血腫風險的患者可能與下述情況有關聯:留置性硬膜外導管、使用具抗血小板作用[[非類固醇抗發炎藥]]等藥物,或是曾進行硬膜外或脊髓穿刺,或有脊椎損傷、脊椎變形等病史。<ref name="DailyMed" />FDA建議對高風險族群進行出血和神經系統變化監測。<ref name="DailyMed" /><ref>{{Cite web|title = Safety Information - Lovenox (enoxaparin sodium) injection|url = https://www.fda.gov/safety/medwatch/safetyinformation/ucm180210.htm| publisher = U.S. Food and Drug Administration |access-date = 2015-11-05| author = Office of the Commissioner|url-status = live|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160304180930/https://www.fda.gov/Safety/MedWatch/SafetyInformation/ucm180210.htm|archive-date = 2016-03-04}}</ref> |
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{{main|{{le|印度電力產業|Electricity sector in India}}|{{le|印度再生能源|Renewable energy in India}}}} |
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印度有99.99%的人口可獲得電力供應。<ref>{{cite web|url=http://saubhagya.gov.in/|title=Households electrification in India| access-date=2018-08-21}}</ref>該國於2013年已超越[[日本]]和[[俄羅斯]],是世界第三大電力生產國,佔全球的比例為4.8%。 <ref>[http://www.iea.org/textbase/nppdf/free/2010/key_stats_2010.pdf IEA Key energy statistics 2010] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101011091637/http://www.iea.org/textbase/nppdf/free/2010/key_stats_2010.pdf |date=2010-10-11 }} p. 27</ref><ref>[http://www.adelphi.de/en/publications/dok/43509.php?pid=1971 Energy-efficient buildings – a business case for India? An analysis of incremental costs for four building projects of the Energy-Efficient Homes Programme, 2015]</ref>印度於2019年的水力發電量在全球排名第六。<ref name=bp20/> |
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==藥理學== |
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===作用機轉=== |
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依諾肝素鈉結合並增強{{le|抗凝血酶|antithrombin}}(一種循環抗凝血劑),形成複合物,不可逆地滅活凝血因子Xa。<ref>{{Cite book|title = Koda-Kimble and Young's Applied Therapeutics: The Clinical Use of Drugs| vauthors = Alldredge BK, Corelli RL, Ernst ME, Guglielmo BJ, Jacobson PA, Kradjan WA, Williams BR |isbn = 978-1-60913-713-7|pages = 347–348|edition = Tenth |date = February 2012| publisher = Lippincott Williams & Wilkins }}</ref>由於藥物分子量低,它對IIa因子(凝血酶)的活性較肝素為低。<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Trevor AJ, Katzung BG, Masters SB | title = Basic & Clinical Pharmacology | publisher = McGraw-Hill Medical | date = 2012 | isbn = 978-0-07-176401-8 }}</ref> |
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截至2024年3月31日,印度再生能源發電容量為190.573吉瓦(GW=十億瓦,佔總發電量的43%),是全球中再生能源投資和安裝領域的領導國之一。<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://qz.com/india/1475736/india-is-now-a-world-leader-in-renewable-energy/|title=India is now a world leader in renewable energy|last=Thomas|first=Maria|date=2018-11-27|website=Quartz India|language=en|access-date=2019-05-06}}</ref> |
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===藥物代謝動力學=== |
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吸收:生物利用度(皮下注射)~ 100%<ref name="DailyMed" /> |
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分佈:分佈體積(抗Xa因子活性)= 4.3公升<ref name="DailyMed" /> |
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代謝:依諾肝素鈉在肝臟中經由脫硫和解聚之一,或是兩者代謝成低分子量物質。<ref name="DailyMed" /> |
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排除:單劑量皮下注射依諾肝素鈉的[[生物半衰期]]為4.5小時。<ref name="DailyMed" />單劑量中約10–40%的活性和非活性片段由腎臟排出。<ref name="DailyMed" />對於腎功能低下者,需根據腎功能調整劑量。<ref name="DailyMed" /> |
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印度設定於2022年再生能源(不包括大型水力發電)發電容量達到175吉瓦的目標。<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=180728|title=A target of installing 175 GW of renewable energy capacity by the year 2022 has been set|date=2018-07-19|website=Public Information Bureau|access-date=2019-05-06}}</ref> 其中包含太陽能發電容量100吉瓦、風力發電容量60吉瓦、生物質發電容量10吉瓦、[[小型水力發電]]容量5吉瓦。<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://energy.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/renewable/india-to-install-54-7-gw-wind-energy-capacity-by-2022-fitch-solutions/69081148|title=India to install 54.7 GW wind energy capacity by 2022: Fitch Solutions - ET EnergyWorld|date=2019-04-28|website=ETEnergyworld|language=en|access-date=2019-05-06}}</ref>此目標與實際完成率存在巨大差距,預計要到2025年底才能達成。 |
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===藥品類別=== |
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依諾肝素鈉屬於低分子量肝素藥物類別。此類藥物中還有{{le|達肝素鈉|Dalteparin sodium}}、{{le|磺達肝素|fondaparinux}}和{{le|汀札肝素鈉|tinzaparin sodium}}。<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = | title = LowMolecularWeightHeparins | year = 2012 | pmid = 31643176 | url = http://livertox.nih.gov/LowMolecularWeightHeparins.htm | website = livertox.nih.gov | access-date = 2015-11-05 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150828060257/http://livertox.nih.gov/LowMolecularWeightHeparins.htm | archive-date = 2015-08-28 }}</ref> |
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== |
==參見== |
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{{Portal|Energy|India}} |
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{{see also|生物相似藥}} |
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2016年9月,商品名為Inhixa和Thorinane的依諾肝素鈉獲准在[[歐盟]]作醫療用途。 <ref name="Inhixa EPAR">{{cite web | title=Inhixa EPAR | website=[[European Medicines Agency]] (EMA) | date=2018-09-17 | url=https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/inhixa | access-date=2020-04-02 | archive-date=r 2020-10-29 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201029200312/https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/inhixa | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Thorinane EPAR">{{cite web | title=Thorinane EPAR | website=[[European Medicines Agency]] (EMA) | date=2018-09-17 | url=https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/thorinane | access-date=2020-04-02 | archive-date=2019-12-30 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191230161610/https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/thorinane | url-status=live }}</ref>Thorinane後於於2019年10月退出市場。<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.ema.europa.eu/documents/public-statement/public-statement-thorinane-cessation-validity-marketing-authorisation-european-union_en.pdf | title=Public statement on Thorinane: Cessation of validity of the marketing authorisation in the European Union | access-date=2020-04-02 | archive-date=2021-08-28 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210828073816/https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/documents/public-statement/public-statement-thorinane-cessation-validity-marketing-authorisation-european-union_en.pdf | url-status=live }}</ref> |
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2017年3月,西班牙Laboratorios ROVI公司生產的依諾肝素鈉(商品名BECAT)取得在歐洲26個國家的銷售許可。現可在歐洲購得此產品。<ref>{{cite web |title=To The National Stock Market Commission |url=https://www.rovi.es/sites/default/files/196i.pdf |access-date=2020-05-29 |archive-date=2021-08-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210828073818/https://www.rovi.es/sites/default/files/196i.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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2020年10月,商品名為Noromby和Noromby HP的依諾肝素鈉在[[加拿大]]獲准用於醫療用途。<ref>{{cite web | title=Summary Basis of Decision (SBD) for Noromby/Noromby HP | website=Health Canada | date=2014-10-23 | url=https://hpr-rps.hres.ca/reg-content/summary-basis-decision-detailTwo.php?linkID=SBD00513&lang=en | access-date=2022-05-29 | archive-date=2022-05-30 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220530051353/https://hpr-rps.hres.ca/reg-content/summary-basis-decision-detailTwo.php?linkID=SBD00513&lang=en | url-status=live }}</ref> |
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2020年11月,商品名為Inclunox和Inclunox HP的依諾肝素鈉在加拿大獲准用於醫療用途。<ref>{{cite web | title=Summary Basis of Decision (SBD) for Inclunox/Inclunox HP | website=Health Canada | date=2014-10-23 | url=https://hpr-rps.hres.ca/reg-content/summary-basis-decision-detailTwo.php?linkID=SBD00517&lang=en | access-date=2022-05-29 | archive-date=2022-05-30 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220530050038/https://hpr-rps.hres.ca/reg-content/summary-basis-decision-detailTwo.php?linkID=SBD00517&lang=en | url-status=live }}</ref> |
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2020年12月,商品名為Redesca和Redesca HP的依諾肝素鈉在加拿大核准用於醫療用途。<ref>{{cite web | title=Summary Basis of Decision (SBD) for Redesca/Redesca HP | website=Health Canada | date=22014-10-23 | url=https://hpr-rps.hres.ca/reg-content/summary-basis-decision-detailTwo.php?linkID=SBD00540&lang=en | access-date=2022-05-29 | archive-date=2022-05-30 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220530040901/https://hpr-rps.hres.ca/reg-content/summary-basis-decision-detailTwo.php?linkID=SBD00540&lang=en | url-status=live }}</ref> |
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{{colbegin}} |
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== 參考文獻 == |
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*{{le|印度氣候變化|Climate change in India}} |
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{{Reflist|2}} |
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*{{le|印度電力產業|Electricity sector in India}} |
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*{{le|印度能源政策|Energy policy of India}} |
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*{{le|印度水力能源|Hydroelectric power in India}} |
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*{{le|印度再生能源|Renewable energy in India}} |
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*{{le|印度風力能源|Wind power in India}} |
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*{{le|印度太陽能源|Solar power in India}} |
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*{{le|印度核能發電|Nuclear power in India}} |
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*{{le|世界能源供應與消耗|World energy supply and consumption}} |
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*[[各國能源生產及消耗列表]] |
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*[[各國石油消費量列表]] |
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*[[各國天然氣年消費量列表]] |
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*[[各國煤產量列表]] |
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*[[各國發電量列表]] |
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*[[國家電力消耗排名列表|各國電力消耗排名列表]] |
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{{colend}} |
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==參考文獻== |
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{{模板:抗血栓藥}} |
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{{reflist|2}} |
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{{Portal bar | Medicine}} |
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{{印度能源}} |
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Enoxaparin Sodium}} |
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{{Energy companies and organisations in India}} |
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{{模板:亞洲題目}} |
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{{draft categories| |
{{draft categories| |
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[[分類: |
[[分類:印度能源| ]] |
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[[分類:賽諾菲]] |
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[[分類:世界衛生組織基本藥物]] |
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[[分類:RTT]] |
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}} |
}} |
2024年8月10日 (六) 11:57的版本
印度於一次能源的消耗量從2013年開始已位居世界第三(參見世界能源供應與消耗),僅次於中國(參見中華人民共和國能源政策)和美國(參見美國能源)。[1][2]於2017年,印度是全球僅次於中國的第二大煤碳消費國。 印度於2017年的石油消費量為2.21億噸,位居第三,僅次於美國和中國。[3]印度是能源淨進口國,該國一次能源的進口量佔耗用總量接近47%。[4][5]
概述
印度於2022-2023財政年度期間的人均一次能源供應總量 (Total Primary Energy Supply,TPES) 為25,745百萬焦耳(mega joule),而最終人均消費總量為16,699百萬焦耳。 同期人均用電量為1,015千瓦時(kWh),農業的能源強度比工業低七倍(見表8.9[6])
財政年度 | 年中人口 (百萬) |
煤碳 (百萬公噸) |
褐煤 (百萬公噸) |
原油 (百萬公噸) |
天然氣 (十億立方米) |
電力@ (十億千瓦時) |
二氧化碳排放當量 (百萬公噸)[7] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2013-14 | 1,252 | 739 | 44 | 222 | 52 | 874 | 2,087.5 |
2014-15 | 1,268 | 822 | 47 | 223 | 51 | 948 | 2,248.1 |
2015-16 | 1,284 | 837 | 42 | 233 | 53 | 1,001 | 2,321.4 |
2016-17 | 1,299 | 837 | 43 | 245 | 56 | 1,061 | 2,425.2 |
2017-18 | 1,313 | 898 | 46 | 252 | 59 | 1,123 | 2,493.6 |
2018-19 | 1,328 | 968 | 46 | 257 | 61 | 1,209 | 2,613.2 |
2019-20 | 1,342 | 956 | 42 | 254 | 64 | 1,248 | 2,645.4 |
2020-21 | 1,357 | 906 | 38 | 222 | 61 | 1,230 | 2,450.3 |
2021-22 | 1,370 | 1,028 | 49 | 242 | 64 | 1,316 | 2,700.5 |
2022-23 | 1,383 | 1,115 | 47 | 255 | 60 | 1,403 | 2,865.2 |
@ 包含由化石燃料生產的電力。
人口 百萬 |
一次能源 太瓦時(TWh,百萬百萬瓦時) |
生產 太瓦時 |
進口 太瓦時 |
電力 太瓦時 |
二氧化碳排放量 百萬噸 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2004 | 1,080 | 6,662 | 5,430 | 1,230 | 494 | 1,103 |
2007 | 1,123 | 6,919 | 5,244 | 1,745 | 610 | 1,324 |
2008 | 1,140 | 7, 222 | 5,446 | 1,836 | 645 | 1,428 |
2009 | 1,155 | 7,860 | 5,844 | 2,116 | 690 | 1,586 |
2010 | 1,171 | 8,056 | 6,032 | 2,110 | 755 | 1,626 |
2012 | 1,241 | 8,716 | 6,291 | 2,483 | 835 | 1,745 |
2012R | 1,237 | 9,166 | 6,333 | 2,829 | 940 | 1,954 |
2013 | 1,250 | 9,018 | 6,086 | 2,962 | 979 | 1,869 |
Change 2004–10 | 8.4% | 20.9% | 11.1% | 72% | 53% | 47.4% |
Mtoe = 11.63太瓦時,核能電廠的熱能利用率約為33%,高於傳統火力發電廠的[10]
2012R = 由於計算二氧化碳的方式改變,因而更新的數字 |
煤炭
印度是全球第二大煤碳生產國,同時也是第二大煤碳進口國。於印度奧里薩邦塔爾切爾的煤化肥廠正處於最終建設階段,預定年產能為121萬噸尿素 - 使用當地煤碳和原油煉油廠副產品石油焦作為原料。印度計劃到2030年使用1億噸煤碳進行氣化,[11]所得煤氣(主要成分為一氧化碳和氫氣)是合成氨的重要原料,合成氨將用於生產尿素、硝酸銨等氮肥。
該國於2019-2020財政年度的煤碳和褐煤產量為7.31億噸。[12][13]印度於2017年是世界第四大煤碳生產國,產量為294.2Mtoe(佔全球產量7.8%)。印度有近80%的發電量(公用事業和事業自備產量合計)由煤碳生產,[8]是該國溫室氣體排放的主要來源。
綠色和平組織稱印度最大的煤碳產地位於賈坎德邦的賈里亞,賈里亞在煤礦開採之前有森林,當地部落居住於其中。於賈里亞的煤礦公司於1971年被印度煤碳部轄下孫公司巴拉特焦煤有限公司 (BCCL) 接管,成為國營公司。[14]
印度是世界上最頻繁發生煤層火災的國家。礦區附近的空氣、水和土地因此受到嚴重的污染。[14]
截至2019年,印度的煤碳生產已被納入中央政府管轄,[15] 例如政府擁有印度煤炭有限公司約75%的股份,該公司供應印度約84%的動力煤。[15]
由於印度沒適合生產鋼鐵用的優質焦炭礦藏,而必須進口。 該國於2021-2022財政年度進口近5,716萬噸焦炭(為同年消費量63.74噸約90%)。.[16] 採直接還原鐵法生產鐵和鋼並未用到焦炭,因而不受焦炭或天然氣供應量的影響。[17][18]
石油與天然氣
印度是全球第三大原油消費國,於2017年的消費量為2.21億噸(全球佔比為4.8%)。該國於2019年進口2.053億噸原油及石油產品,是全球第二大進口國。[19]印度於2017年擁有每天4.972億桶的煉油能力,全球排名第四(佔比為5.1%)。[8]
液化石油氣
印度於2019年4月至9月期間(六個月)共消費1,093.7萬噸液化石油氣 (LPG),主要用於烹飪。[20]印度國內使用LPG的用戶有2.74億戶(平均一戶有5人),在市場流通的LPG鋼瓶超過4億只,連結起來總長度可達20萬公里,超過印度鋪設鐵路的總長度。[21]印度是全球第二大LPG消費國,大部分仰賴進口。[22]印度城市中少有大規模的輸送燃氣管道系統。[23][24]
生物質和木炭
生物質是一種再生能源,可用於生產生物燃料(碳中性燃料)或有機化學品。[25]植物在光合作用過程中會吸收二氧化碳,由此產生的生物質經燃燒時又將二氧化碳釋放。印度目前有20%的家庭會使用生物質和木炭作為烹飪用燃料,而使用LPG的家庭數量正迅速增加中,。[26][27]此外還有少量的生物質用於商業烹飪、發電、加工業等。印度在2013年的生物質使用量接近177百萬噸Mtoe。[1] 大量的作物秸稈也在農田中焚燒,以騰出空間供下一季作物種植用。印度每年約有7.5億噸的生物質廢棄物,這些資源若能有效轉換,不僅可降低環境負擔,還能帶來可觀的經濟效益。[28][29]
印度進口大量煤碳,經粉碎後用於發電。由於生物質有結塊問題,難以磨成細粉,不適合在此類磨粉機中處理。然而100%的生物質可經焦化後再磨粉,用來取代煤碳。[30]可利用現有的燃煤發電廠煙道氣作為熱源將生物質焦化,而後與煤碳聯合使用。根據歐洲電廠的經驗,可加入20%焦化後的生物質與煤碳混燒,而無結渣或結垢問題。[31]在印度西北和南部地區可將農業/作物殘留物取代進口煤碳,否則任其在田間燃燒反會造成污染問題。[33]當印度家庭大量使用LPG取代傳統的生物質作為烹飪燃料,農業生物質在田地中燃燒的數量可能因而增加,而導致更高的空氣污染問題。[32]
主要成分為甲烷的生物燃氣,也可通過培養甲基球菌,以極少的土地和水資源生產出富含蛋白質的飼料,供家牛、家禽和魚類養殖用途。 [33][34][35]工廠產生的二氧化碳廢氣可以低成本方式生產藻類油,尤其適合在印度等熱帶國家發展,未來或可取代以石油為主的地位。[36][37]印度政府正在推動許多計劃以有效利用農村地區的農業廢棄物或生物質,以提升當地經濟和就業潛力。[38][39]
生物燃料
印度的石油產品中有85%依賴進口,於2020-2021財政年度的進口金額為550億美元。該國設定目標,到2025年將在汽油中混入20%乙醇,而節省40億美元(或3,000億印度盧比)的進口替代成本。印度政府也提供財政支持,利用稻米、小麥、大麥、玉米、高粱、甘蔗、甜菜等生產乙醇,[40]在2016年,印度全國的汽油中平均摻有3.3%乙醇,這是印度歷年來乙醇在汽油中的比例最高的一年。[41]
電力
印度有99.99%的人口可獲得電力供應。[42]該國於2013年已超越日本和俄羅斯,是世界第三大電力生產國,佔全球的比例為4.8%。 [43][44]印度於2019年的水力發電量在全球排名第六。[19]
截至2024年3月31日,印度再生能源發電容量為190.573吉瓦(GW=十億瓦,佔總發電量的43%),是全球中再生能源投資和安裝領域的領導國之一。[45]
印度設定於2022年再生能源(不包括大型水力發電)發電容量達到175吉瓦的目標。[46] 其中包含太陽能發電容量100吉瓦、風力發電容量60吉瓦、生物質發電容量10吉瓦、小型水力發電容量5吉瓦。[47]此目標與實際完成率存在巨大差距,預計要到2025年底才能達成。
參見
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