The Second Chamber, the provincial councils, and the municipal councils are elected according to a system of proportional representation. In general elections for the Second Chamber, it can take as little as 0.66 percent of the overall vote to get one of the seats in the chamber. As a result, a large number of parties and political movements are represented in the parliament. The principal Dutch political parties in the early 21st century included the Christian Democratic Appeal (CDA), formed in the 1970s from a coalition of the leading Christian parties; the Labour Party (Partij van de Arbeid; PvdA); the liberal People’s Party for Freedom and Democracy (Volkspartij voor Vrijheid en Democratie; VVD); the Socialist Party; Democrats 66 (D66); and the Party for Freedom (Partij voor de Vrijheid; PVV), led by Geert Wilders, an anti-Islam populist, who draws on support for the now defunct List Pim Fortuyn (LPF), named for its founder, Wilhelmus Fortuyn, an anti-immigration populist who was assassinated in 2002. There is also a comparatively high proportion of women representatives in the States General (more than one-third in the early 21st century). The franchise is extended to all Dutch citizens who have reached age 18, except for a few special groups, such as the mentally impaired. About three-fourths of the citizenry are registered voters.

Security

The Dutch armed forces consist of an army, a navy, and an air force; there is also a small unit of military police. Until the 1990s, all male citizens were liable for military service at age 18; however, the end of the Cold War, the reunification of Germany, and the disbandment of the Warsaw Pact rapidly changed Dutch defense needs. The military is now an all-volunteer force open to males and females who are at least age 20. With fewer personnel than before, it concentrates on crisis control and higher mobility.

Health and welfare

Following World War II, the Netherlands developed an elaborate system of social security, providing all its citizens with universal health care and old age and unemployment benefits. All citizens are entitled to four national insurance schemes: the General Old Age Pensions Act, the General Widows and Orphans Act, the Exceptional Medical Expenses Act, and General Disability Benefits. There also are four employee insurance schemes: the Sickness Benefits Act, the Disability Insurance Act, the Compulsory Health Insurance Act, and the Unemployment Insurance Act. The system is supplemented by a number of social services, the most important being the General Family Allowance Act, which provides for family allowances for children up to age 17 and under certain circumstances for older children (including those not entitled to student grants), and the National Assistance Act, under which benefits are paid to claimants who have little or no income.

The system is one of the most generous in the world, but since the 1980s its costs have become increasingly prohibitive. As with the systems employed by many other Western democracies, there were major revisions to the Dutch scheme, such as cost-sharing provisions and restrictions involving temporary workers, the self-employed, and non-Dutch nationals. The government pension is used in combination with pensions from employers and from private insurance plans.

Housing

A severe housing shortage began developing after the mid-20th century and became a source of political controversy. By the 1970s, in the face of continually growing demand, even an unprecedented boom in housing construction proved inadequate. Demographic changes led to a rapid increase in the number of households, and rising standards of living fueled the consumption of space per person. This crisis abated by the mid-1970s, only to be replaced by a financial one.

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Rent controls, as well as alternative investment opportunities and the introduction of the social security of the welfare state, reduced the private rental sector from more than 60 percent in 1947 to less than 15 percent by the late 1980s. The expansion of the postwar housing stock was made possible only by massive investment in subsidized rental housing, run by not-for-profit housing associations. Concurrently, the generously subsidized homeowner sector expanded. Today just over half of Dutch homes are owned by their occupants (still a low figure by EU standards). Since the early 1990s the government has stepped back from its central role in controlling and subsidizing rents and has concentrated available public resources more on lower income groups. By 2001, a century after the Housing Act of 1901, the Netherlands officially declared an end to the housing shortage.

Education

All primary, secondary, and higher education is provided by either governmental (municipal or state) or private institutions. The latter are, with a few exceptions, run by Protestant and Roman Catholic organizations. All private schools are, when they conform to legally fixed standards, financed from governmental funds on an equal footing with their public (openbare) counterparts. Dutch secondary education is not a comprehensive system (that is, the same for all pupils) but one consisting of several tracks. Among these are the five-year Higher General Education track, the mandatory preparation for institutions of higher education other than the university; and the six-year Preparatory Scientific Secondary Education track, which is mandatory for university admittance.

The system of higher education is a binary one. There are dozens of institutions for Higher Professional Education, and they cover many professional fields complementary to those served by the country’s principal universities. The latter are all publicly financed. A number of the major universities cover a general range of disciplines, including the four state universities—of Leiden (founded 1575), Groningen (1614), Utrecht (1636), and Limburg at Maastricht (1976)—and the (former municipal) University of Amsterdam (1632), the Erasmus University at Rotterdam (1973), the (originally Calvinist) Free University at Amsterdam (1880), the (originally Roman Catholic) Radboud University of Nijmegen (1923), and the University of Tilburg (1927). Other governmental universities are more specialized: the universities of technology at Delft (1842), Eindhoven (1956), and Enschede (Twente University; 1961) and the Agricultural University at Wageningen (1918). In addition, the Open University, established in 1984, provides for both university and vocational education through correspondence courses.

Environmental control

In the Netherlands, as in all industrialized countries, the increasing pollution of both the natural and man-made environments is a major problem. Pollution in the Netherlands has certain specific aspects that are closely linked to the country’s geography. For example, the maritime situation, together with the low-lying character of the coastlands, gives rise to a serious salination problem. The great European rivers—the Rhine, Maas, and Schelde—have historically transported many waste products to the Netherlands and into the adjoining North Sea. High population density and its associated intensive land use also increase the concentration of all forms of pollution.

Dutch policy regarding the environment is among the toughest and most ambitious in the world. The government sets stiff targets for reducing pollution and other environmental damage, which firms are then invited to meet by their own measures. Since the late 1980s national environmental policy plans have increasingly addressed the causes of pollution. Thus, commuters are encouraged to travel by public transport; farmers are induced to reduce the use of pesticides and artificial fertilizers; and industries are regulated to promote cleaner production processes and to reduce emissions of pollutants into the air, water, and soil.