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Från Wikipedia
Pjotr Iljitj Tjajkovskij
Pjotr Tjajkovskij, målning av Nikolaj Kuznetsov.
Pjotr Tjajkovskij,
målning av Nikolaj Kuznetsov.
Levnad
FödelsenamnПётр Ильич Чайковский
Född7 maj 1840
Votkinsk, Ryssland
Död6 november 1893 (53 år)
Sankt Petersburg, Ryssland
Tonsättare
Epok/stilRomantik

Pjotr Iljitj Tjajkovskij (ryska: Пётр Ильич Чайковский), född 7 maj 1840, död 6 november 1893, enligt nya stilen (25 april 1840 – 25 oktober 1893 enligt gamla stilen), var en rysk tonsättare. Han har skrivit sju symfonier (sex numrerade samt "Manfredsymfonin"), elva operor (bland annat operorna Eugen Onegin, Spader Dam, Mazeppa och Jolantha), symfoniska dikter, tre stråkkvartetter, sånger, stycken för piano samt tre sagobaletter (Svansjön, Törnrosa och Nötknäpparen – den sistnämnda löst baserad på en historia av E.T.A. Hoffmann).

Tjajkovskij växte upp i en medelklassfamilj och trots att han visade stor musikalisk begåvning var det tänkt att hans skulle bli statstjänsteman. Han valde dock, mot familjens önskan, att bedriva musikstudier och 1862 påbörjade hans sina studier vid konservatoriet i S:t Petersburg och examinerades därifrån 1865. Den utbildning inom den traditionella västerländska konstmusik som han fick gjorde att han fjärmade sig från den samtida nationalistiska rörelse som förkroppsligades av den inflytelserika grupp av unga ryska tonsättare som kallades "De fem" eller "den nyryska skolan" och som bestod av César Cui, Alexander Borodin, Modest Musorgskij och Nikolaj Rimskij-Korsakov. Tjajkovskij upprätthöll dock en kollegial relation till gruppen under hela sitt liv.

Trots att han upplevde många framgångar var Tjajkovskij aldrig känslomässigt stabil. Hans liv försvårades av personliga kriser och perioder av depression. Till detta bidrog hans undertryckta homosexualitet och rädsla för att exponera sitt katastrofala äktenskap. Därtill kom den plötsliga brytningen av den enda varaktiga relation han hade i sitt vuxna liv – samarbetet med den rika änkan Nadezjda von Meck. Mitt i hans personliga kaos växte hans berömmelse. Han fick en utmärkelse av tsaren, tilldelades livslång pension och lovordades i konserthus över hela världen. Som orsak till hans plötsliga död vid 53 års ålder brukar allmänt nämnas kolera, men även självmord enligt vissa.[1]

Tjajkovskij har ständigt varit populär hos konsertpubliken men trots det avfärdades hans musik ofta av kritikerna i mitten av 1900-talet då den ansågs simpel och i avsaknad av upphöjda idéer.[2] Denna typ av omdömen är numera ovanliga och Tjajkovskijs status som en av de mest betydande tonsättarna är oomtvistad.[3]

Biografi

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Familj

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Tjajkovskij föddes i Votkinsk, en liten stad i dagens Udmurtien, tidigare provinsen Vyatka i Tsarryssland, i en familj där männen varit militärer i flera generationer. Hans far, Iljitj Petrovitj Tjaikovskij, var ingenjör och tjänstgjorde som överstelöjtnant vid gruvministeriet[4] som chef för det berömda järnverket Kamsko-Votkinsk.[5] Fadern var inte bara chef över järnverken i Jekaterinburg-området. Han hade dessutom en plats i den lokala magistraten och under en tid var han också befälhavare över en privat armé bestående av 100 kosacker.[6][7][8] Av faderns bröder, Tjajkovskijs farbröder, var det en som dödades i Paris 1814 under Napoleonkrigen och en som deltog i femtiotvå slag mot fransmännen och turkarna.[9] Tjajkovskijs farfar, Pjotr Fjodorovitj Chaika (som senare bytte sitt efternamn till Tjajkovskij) var född 1745 i Nikolaevka, nära Poltava i Ukraina studerade först vid ett seminarium i Kiev, men skaffade sig sedan en medicinsk utbildning i Sankt Petersburg och var i sju år assistent åt en läkare i den ryska armén.[5] Från 1785 finns han upptagen i en förteckning över adliga personer som medlem av den icke jordägande överklassen och han blev så småningom polischef i Glazov i Vyatka-provinsen.[4][5] Tjajkovskijs farfars far, Fyodor Afanas'evitj Chaika, stred under tsar Peter den store i Slaget vid Poltava 1709.[10]

Tjajkovskijs mor, Alexandra Andreyevna född d'Assier, var 18 år yngre än sin make och av delvis frans härkomst. Hon var den andra av faderns tre hustrur.[5][7] Tjajkovskijs bror, Modest, beskrev henne så: ”Enligt vittnesmål av personer som kände henne var hon en lång ståtlig kvinna, inte särskilt vacker, men med en förtrollande blick. Ett utseende som drog till sig uppmärksamhet. Alla som såg henne var överens om att det fanns något ovanligt attraktivt i hennes uppenbarelse.”[11] Familjen d'Assier lämnade Frankrike 1789 i kölvattnet av den Franska revolutionen och slog sig så småningom ner i Ryssland där de blev medborgare genom att svära trohet mot den kejserliga kronan. Tjajkovskijs morfar blev tulltjänsteman "på grund av sitt stora sociala nätverk och sina kunskaper i nästan alla europeiska språk".[12] Efter föräldrarnas skilsmässa och hennes mors död placerades hon i "Fosterländska institutet" som var en skola i Sankt Petersburg för överklassens barn.[13] Där blev hon skicklig i franska och tyska, duktig pianist och en god sångare.[14]

Barndom

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Familjen Tjajkovskij 1848. Från vänster till höger: Pjotr, Alexandra Andreyevna (mor), Alexandra (syster), Ippolit, Iljitj Petrovitj (far).

Tjajkovskij var näst äldst av de sex barnen i faderns andra äktenskap. Han hade fyra bröder (Nikolaj, Ippolit, tvillingarna Anatoly och Modest), och en syster, Alexandra. Dessutom hade han en halvsyster, Zinaida, från faderns första äktenskap.[15] Han stod Alexandra och tvillingarna särskilt nära. Anatoly kom att göra en juristkarriär och Modest blev dramatiker, librettist och översättare.[16] Alexandra gifte sig med Lev Davydov[17] och fick sju barn, varav en son Vladimir Davydov skulle komma att "bli en viktig person i Tjajkovskijs sista år".[18][19] Familjen Davidov kom att erbjuda det enda familjeliv som Tjajkovskij upplevde som vuxen[20] och deras hem i Kamenka i Ukraina blev en välkommen tillflyktsort under hans kringflackande år.[20]

På grund av ökat arbete i den växande familjen[21][22] anställde Tjajkovskijs föräldrar 1843 en fransk guvernant, Fanny Dürbach, som var en 22-årig erfaren lärare. Brodern Modest skrev senare att "hon kunde franska och tyska lika bra och hennes moral var strängt protestantisk".[21] Eftersom hon anställts för att ta hand om Tjajkovskijs äldre bror Nikolaj och en kusin dröjde det inte länge förrän Tjajkovskij blev nyfiken på den unga kvinnan och, som biografen Anthony Holden skrev, "snodde sig in i hennes tillgivenhet och i hennes undervisning".[23] Dürbachs kärlek och tillgivenhet för sitt uppdrag sades ha skapat en barriär till Tjajkovskijs mor, som av Holden beskrivs som en kall, olycklig och distanserad förälder oförmögen till fysiska ömhetsbevis.[24] Tjajkovskijforskaren Alexander Poznansky[25] skriver emellertid att modern var mycket svag för sin son.[26]

Tjajkovskij började ta pianolektioner vid fem års ålder. Han var något av en lillgammal elev och kunde läsa noter lika bra som sin lärare inom tre år. Hans föräldrar sporrade honom och anställde en lärare, köpte ett orchestrion och uppmuntrade hans pianostudier.[27] Deras entusiasm över hans talang svalnade emellertid snart och 1850 bestämde de att skicka honom till den "Kejserliga juridikskolan"[28] (ryska: Императорское училище правоведения) i Sankt Petersburg. Skolan vände sig främst till pojkar ur överklassen och förberedde dem för en karriär inom statsförvaltningen. Eftersom minimiålder för att antagas var 12 år fick han tillbringa två år på en förberedande internatskola 130 mil hemifrån.[29] Efter de två åren överfördes han till huvudskolan för att påbörja en sjuårig utbildning.[30]

Blivande tonsättare

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Nutida vu över Kejserliga juridikskolan i Sankt Petersburg.

Barndomens trauma och skolåren

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Tjajkovskijs mor dog i kolera den 25 juni 1854, vilket blev en chock för sonen. Musikologen och Tjajkovskijexperten David Brown kallar det "den avgörande händelsen under Tjajkovskijs år vid juristskolan,[31] och tillade att "det var säkert uppskakande".[32] Tjajkovskij sörjde förlusten av sin mor hela livet och medgav att den hade "en enorm betydelse för hur mitt liv blev".[33] Han var så påverkad att det dröjde två år innan han meddelade Fanny Dürbach vad som hänt.[34] När han var 40 år, 26 år efter moderns död, skrev Tjajkovskij till sin välgörare Nadezjda von Meck: "Varje ögonblick av den där fruktansvärda dagen är så levande för mig som vore den igår."[35] En månad efter moderns död gjorde han sitt första allvarliga försök att komponera, en vals till moderns minne. Fadern som också insjuknat i kolera, men tillfrisknat, sände omedelbart tillbaka pojken till skolan med en förhoppning att skolarbetet skulle skingra hans tankar.[36] För att komma över sin känsla av isolering och förlusten i familjen blev Tjajkovskij god vän med några av skolans elever, Aleksey Apukhtin och Vladimir Gerard, en vänskap som varade livet ut.[36]

Kanske hade han också upplevt de påstått utbredda homosexuella aktiviteterna vid skolan. Oavsett om detta var erfarenheter som formade honom eller om hans läggning drog honom till dem, anser forskare att han vid denna tid kan ha blivit medveten om sin sexuella läggning.[37]

Musikämnet hade inte hög prioritet vid juristskolan,[38] men Tjajkovskij höll kontakt med musiken utanför skolschemat genom att regelbundet gå på teater och opera tillsammans med andra elever.[39] Han tyckte vid den här tiden mycket om verk av Rossini, Bellini, Verdi och Mozart. Han var känd för att sitta vid skolans harmonium efter körövningarna och improvisera över de sånger de just hade sjungit. "Vi tyckte om det" drog sig Vladimir Gerard till minnes senare, "men vi uppfylldes inte av förväntningar på hans framtida storhet."[40] Pianofabrikören Franz Becker besökte då och då skolan som symbolisk musiklärare. Det var den enda regelrätta musikundervisning Tjajkovskij fick här. 1855 ordnade Tjajkovskijs far med privatlektioner för sonen för Rudolph Kündinger, en välkänd pianolärare från Nürnberg. Fadern frågade också efter Kündlingers åsikter om en eventuell framtida musikerkarriär för sonen. Kündlinger svarade att han var imponerad av Tjajkovskijs förmåga att improvisera vid pianot, men nämnde inget om en tänkbar framtid som tonsättare eller interpret. Tjaijkovskij fick sluta med undervisningen och söka en befattning vid justitiedepartementet.[41]

Tjajkovskij i tonåren.

Musikerbanan inleds

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Den 10 juni 1859, vid 19 års plder, examinerades Tjajkovskij från skolan för rättsvetenskap och den 15 juni fick han plats i justitiedepartementet där han blev kvar i drygt tre år.[42]

1861 deltog Tjajkovskij i undervisning i musikteori som anordnades av det ryska musiksällskapet som grundats två år tidigare av Anton Rubinstein. Lärare var Nikolaj Zaremba. Ett år senare följde han med Zaremba till det nygrundade konservatoriet i Sankt Petersburg. Han beslät sig för att inte säga upp sin plats i departementet "förrän jag är fast besluten stt bli musiker hellre än statstjänsteman".[43] mellan 1862 och 1965 studerade han harmonilära och kontrapunkt för Zaremba, medan Anton Rubinstein, direktör för och grundare av konservatoriet, undervisade honom i instrumentation och komposition.[44] Han övergav sin tjänstemannakarroär 1863 för att studera musik på heltid och examinerades från konservatoriet 1865. Även om Rubinstein var imponerad av Tjajkovskijs talang, hamnade han och Zaremba i konflikt med den unge tonsättaren om hans första symfoni, komponerad efter examen, då han lämnade den till dem för att få deras omdöme. Symfonin uruppfördes i Moskva i februari 1868 och fick ett gott mottagande.[45]

Relationen till den nyryska skolan

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Rubinsteins västorienterade utbildning gjorde att han hamnade i oposition till den nyryska skolan ("De fem") som bestod av musiker med en nationalistisk inriktning. Då Tjajkovskij var Rubinsteins mest kända elev kom han också att utgöra målet för gruppen, i synnerhet för César Cui.[46] Cuis kritik inleddes med en svidande kritik av en kantat Tjajkovskij skrivit som en examensuppgift vid konservatoriet. Han kallade verket "klent" och skrev att om Tjajkovskij hade någon musikalisk gåva så "borde kantaten på något sätt brutit bojorna med konservatoriet".[47] Recensionens påverkan på Tjajkovskij var förkrossande: "Min syn blev svart, mitt huvud snurrade och jag sprang ut från kaféet som en galning… Hela dagen strövade jag planlöst genom staden och upprepade, 'Jag är steril, obetydlig, jag kommer inte att få ur mig någonting, jag är obegåvad'".[48]

A man in his late 20s or early 30s with dark hair and a bushy beard, wearing a dark coat, dress shirt and tie.
The young Mily Balakirev.

När Rubinstein avgick som dirigent för Sankt Petersburgs ryska musiksällskaps orkester 1867, ersattes han av tonsättaren Mily Balakirev, ledare för den nyryska skolan. Tjajkovskij som nu var lärare i musikteori vid Moskvakonservatoriet[49] hade Tjajkovskij redan lovat sina "Karaktäristiska danser" till sällskapet. Då han lämnade in partituret (kanske med tanke på Cuis recension av examenskantaten) lämnade han ett meddelande till Balakirev som slutade med en begäran om ett ord av uppmuntran om danserna inte skulle komma att uppföras.[50] Kanske kände Balakirev att han hade en ny lärjunge i Tjajkovskij[51] då han svarade "med fullkomlig uppriktighet" att han tyckte att Tjajkovskij var en "fullfjädrad konstnär".[52] Dessa brev angav tonen i deras relation under de kommande två åren. De inledde ett samarbete 1869 som emanerade i Tjajkovskijs första erkända mästerverk, fantasiouvertyren Romeo och Julia, ett verk som kollegerna i den nyryska skolan helhjärtat accepterade.[53]

På det personliga planet stod Tjajkovskij på god fot med "De fem", men på det konstnärliga var han vanligtvis ambivalent inför deras musik.[54] Trots samarbetet med Balakirev med "Romeo och Julia", ansträngde sig Tjajkovskij att stå oberoende av gruppen, liksom av den konservativa fraktionen vid Sankt Petersburg-konservatoriet.[55]

Mogen tonsättare

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Huvudtemat i pianostämman i Tjajkovskijs första pianokonsert.

Mellan 1867 och 1878 kombinerade Tjajkovskij sitt komponerande med att skriva musikkritik.[56] Några av hans mest kända kompositioner från den här tiden är Pianokonsert nr 1 b♭-moll op 23 (1875), Rokoko-variationer för cello och orkester op 33 (1876), Symfoni nr 2 c-moll op 17 (1872) "Den lillryska", Symfoni nr 4 f-moll op 36 (1877-78), balletten Svansjön (1876) och operan Eugen Onegin efter Alexander Pusjkin (1879). Den första pianokonserten drabbades av att den tilltänkta pianisten, Anton Rubinsteins bror Nikolai avvisade den, även om han senare kom att framföra den.[57] Verket framfördes följaktligen i Boston i oktober 1875 av Hans von Bülow vars talang hade imponerat på Tjajkovskij vid ett framträdande i Moskva i mars 1974.[58]

I Moskva där han undervisade tillsammans med Nikolaj Rubinstein upplevde Tjajkovskij för första gången berömmelse och uppskattning. Han kom med i ett konstnärssällskap grundat av Rubinstein där han fick en social status som celebritet bland konstnärskolleger och vänner,[59] men efter fem år som lärare kände han sig frustrerad av kampen för brödfödan. Gradvis drog han sig undan Rubinsteins berömmelse för att känna sig oberoende.[59] Flytten till Moskva som var fylld av både bitterhet, vänskap och svartsjuka var emellertid en framgång i konstnärligt avseende. Hans musik framfördes regelbundet, ofta strax efter det att de skrivits klart och publicerandet av pianostycken och sånger för den rysjka marknaden stärkte hans popularitet.[60]

Sexualitet

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Poznansky visar i sin bok Tchaikovsky: The Quest for the Inner Man att Tjajkovskij hade homosexuella böjelser och att några av tonsättarens närmaste relationer var med personer av samma kön. Det har spekulerats i om han var förälskad i sin betjänt Aleksei Sofronov och sin brorson Vladimir Davidov.[61] Eftersom hans kärlek till brorsonen går tillbaka till 1884 då Davidov bara var 13 år är forskarna överens om att Tjajkovskij knappast agerat efter sina känslor för honom.[62] När Tjajkovskijs vänskap till sin välgörare Nadezhda von Meck plötsligt upphörde 1890 blev Davidov en av dem som Tjajkovskij anförtrodde sina innersta känslor, och det kan ha varit "en källa till tilltagande sorg" att Davidov inte visade samma förtroende.[63] Beroendet av Davidov var en bidragande orsak till att Tjajkovskij övervägde att flytta till Sankt Petersburg de sista åren av sitt liv. Tjajkovskij skrev till sin bror Modest 1890, "Eftersom jag förstått hur viktig "Bob" är i mitt liv har jag bestämt mig för att flytta till Sankt Petersburg nästa år för att få se honom, höra honom och ha honom nära mig. Detta tror jag är en avgörande förutsättning för att jag ska vara lycklig."[64] Han dedicerade sin sjätte symfoni Pathétique till Davidov.[65]

Det faktum att Tjajovskij verkade vara tillfreds med sin sexuella natur, synes mer kontroversiellt än homosexualiteten i sig. Poznanskij sluter sig till, efter att ha läst alla tonsättarens brev (även de opublicerade), att Tjajkovskij "så småningom kom att se sina sexuella egenheter som en oöverkomlig och till och med naturlig del av sin personlighet […] utan att ta allvarlig psykisk skada."[66] Adekvata delar av brodern Modests självbiografi där han berättar om sin brors sexuella läggning har publicerats.[67] Även brodern bar homosexuell.[59] Några brev, som tidigare hemlighållits av sovjetiska censorer, där Tjajkovskij öppet talar om sin homosexualitet har publicerats både på ryska och i engelsk översättning av Poznansky.[68]

Anthony Holden menar emellertid att brittiska musikologer och forskaren Henry Zajaczkowski som är inne på den "psykoanalytiska linjen", i stället pekar på en "en allvarlig omedveten hämning hos tonsättaren avseende hans sexuella känslor":

En konsekvens av detta kan bli en sexuell vällevnad som ett slags artificiell lösning: individen övertalar sig själv att inte acceptera sina sexuella impulser. Till detta kan man lägga, även som en psykologisk försvarsmekanism, just den idolisering av Tjajkovskij som många av de unga männen i hans krets (den av Tjajkovskij kallade ”Fjärde sviten”) ägnade sig åt, och som Poznansky uppmärksammar. Om tonsättarens gensvar på tänkbara sexualobjekt antingen var att utnyttja dem, att avvisa dem eller dyrka dem, visar detta att han var oförmögen att satsa på en ömsesidig och trygg relation med en annan man. Detta var, utan tvekan [Tjajkovskijs] tragedi.[69]

Musikforskaren och historikern Roland John Wiley framkastar en tredje teori baserad på Tjajkovskijs brev. Han menar, att eftersom Tjajkovskij inte upplevde någon "outhärdlig skuld" på grund av sin homosexualitet så var han dock medveten om de negativa konsekvenser det kunde få om det blev offentligt, särskilt om det påverkade hans familj.[70] Hans beslut att gå in i en heterosexuell relation och försöka leva ett dubbelliv var föranlett av flera faktorer – möjligheten till ett avslöjande, att vara sin far till lags och hans önskan att ha ett hem med barn och familj.[70]

Han sökte homosexuellt sällskap i sin vänkrets under längre perioder och "umgicks öppet och inledde även yrkesmässiga relationer med dem".[70] Wiley tillägger: "I motsats till viss amatörmässig kritik finns det ingen anledning att anta att, denna period [hans kortlivade äktenskap] undantagen, Tjajkovskijs sexualitet någonsin påverkade hans inspiration till det sämre, eller gjorde hans musik särskilt bekännande eller oförmögen att förmedla ett filosofiskt uttryck."[70]

Misslyckat äktenskap

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Vid 28 års ålder, 1868, mötte Tjajkovskij den belgiska sopranen Désirée Artôt som var på turné i Ryssland. Tycke uppstod och de förlovade sig.[71] Han dedicerade sin Romans i f-moll för piano, op 5, till henne. Men den 15 september 1869 gifte hon sig plötslig, utan ett ord till Tjajkovskij, med den spanske barytonen Mariano Padilla y Ramos. Den allmänna uppfattningen var att Tjajkovskij kom över affären ganska snabbt, men också att han använde hennes namn som en kod i sin pianokonsert nr 1 b-moll op 23 (1875) och i tondikten Fatum op 77 (1868).[72] De möttes vid en handfull tillfällen senare och i oktober 188 skrev han Sex sånger med fransk text op 65 (1888) för henne då hon bad honom skriva en enda sång. Tjajkovskij sade senare att hon var den enda kvinna han någonsin velat gifta sig med.[73]

I april 1877 gifte sig plötsligt Tjajkovskijs favoritelev Vladimir Shilovsky.[74] [75] [76] Shilovskys giftermål kan ha sporrat Tjajkovskij att själv överväga ett liknade steg[74] och han berättar om sina planer i ett brev till sin bror.[77] Detta följdes av Tjajkovskijs olycksaliga giftermål med en av sina tidigare kompositionselever, Antonina Miliukova. Den korta tiden med sin hustru drev honom mot en känslomässig kris som följdes av en vistelse i Clarens i Schweiz, där han bodde för att vila upp sig och tillfriskna.[78] Äktenskapet upplöstes aldrig, men de levde inte mer tillsammans och fick aldrig några barn. Miliukova fick senare tre barn med en annan man.[79] Tjajkovskijs ältenskapsnederlag fick honom troligen att inse hela sanningen om sin sexualitet.[80] Uppenbarligen funderade han aldrig mer över äktenskap som ett sätt att fly undan eller dölja sin läggning och han ansåg sig heller inte kunna älska kvinnor på samma sätt som män.[80] Den 19 februari 1878 skrev han från Florens till sin bror Anatoly:

” Tack vare mitt livs regelbundenhet och det ibland tråkiga men alltid trygga lugnet, och framför allt, tack vare tiden som läker alla sår, är jag fullkomligt återställd från min "galenskap". Det råder inget tvivel om att jag under några månader var "galen" och först nu sedan jag tillfrisknat kan jag se objektivt på det som hände under min korta galenskap. Den man som i maj fick för sig att han skulle gifta sig med Antonina Ivanova, som under juni skrev en hel opera som om ingenting hade hänt, som i juli gifte sig, som i september flydde från sin hustru och som i november reste till Rom och så vidare, det var inte jag. Det var någon annan Pjotr Illitj.[81] „

Några dagar senare tillade han i ett annat brev till Anatoly att "det var finns inget mer meningslöst än att vilja vara någon annan jag är av naturen".[82]

Creative genius and emotional turmoil

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It has been commonly held that the strain of the marriage and Tchaikovsky's emotional state immediately preceding it may have actually enhanced Tchaikovsky's creativity. To some extent, this may have been the case. While the Fourth Symphony was begun some months before Tchaikovsky married Antonina,[83] both the symphony and the opera Eugene Onegin, arguably two of his finest compositions,[83] are held up as proof of this enhanced creativity.[83] He finished both these works in the six months between his engagement and the completion of the rest cure following his marriage breakdown. While in Clarens he also composed his Violin Concerto, with the technical assistance of one of his former students, violinist Yosif Kotek. Kotek later helped establish contact between Tchaikovsky and Nadezhda von Meck, the widow of a railway magnate, who became the composer's patron and confidante.[84]

Like the First Piano Concerto, the Violin Concerto was rejected initially by its intended dedicatee, virtuoso and pedagogue Leopold Auer, and was premiered by Adolph Brodsky. While the work would eventually enjoy public success, the audience hissed at its premiere in Vienna,[85] and it was denigrated by music critic Eduard Hanslick:

The Russian composer Tchaikovsky is surely no ordinary talent, but rather, an inflated one, obsessed with posturing as a man of genius, and lacking all discrimination and taste ... the same can be said for his new, long, and ambitious Violin Concerto. For a while it proceeds soberly, musically, and not mindlessly, but soon vulgarity gains the upper hand and dominates until the end of the first movement. The violin is no longer played: it is tugged about, torn, beaten black and blue ... The Adagio is well on the way to reconciling us and winning us over when, all too soon, it breaks off to make way for a finale that transports us to the brutal and wretched jollity of a Russian church festival. We see a host of gross and savage faces, hear crude curses, and smell the booze. In the course of a discussion of obscener illustrations, Friedrich Vischer once maintained that there were pictures whose stink one could see. Tchaikovsky's Violin Concerto confronts us for the first time with the hideous idea that there may be musical compositions whose stink one can hear.[86]

Auer belatedly accepted the concerto, and eventually played it to great public success. In future years he taught the work to his pupils, including Jascha Heifetz and Nathan Milstein. Auer later said that Hanslick's comment that "the last movement was redolent of vodka [...] did credit neither to his good judgment nor to his reputation as a critic."[87]

Hans von Bülow became a fervent champion of Tchaikovsky's music.

The intensity of personal emotion now flowing through Tchaikovsky's works was entirely new to Russian music.[88] It prompted some Russian commentators to place his name alongside that of novelist Fyodor Dostoyevsky.[88] Like Dostoyevsky's characters, they felt the musical hero in Tchaikovsky's music persisted in exploring the meaning of life while trapped in a fatal love-death-faith triangle.[88] The critic Osoovski wrote of Tchaikovsky and Dostoyevsky: "With a hidden passion they both stop at moments of horror, total spiritual collapse, and finding acute sweetness in the cold trepidation of the heart before the abyss, they both force the reader to experience those feelings, too."[89]

Tchaikovsky's fame among concert audiences began to expand outside Russia, and continued to grow within it. Hans von Bülow had become a fervent champion of the composer's work after hearing some of it in a Moscow concert during Lent of 1874.[90] In a German newspaper later that year, he praised the First String Quartet, Romeo and Juliet and other works, and he would later take up many other Tchaikovsky works both as pianist and conductor.[90] In France, Camille Benoit began introducing Tchaikovsky's music to readers of the Revue et gazette musicale de Paris. The music also received significant exposure during the 1878 International Exhibition in Paris. While Tchaikovsky's reputation as a composer grew, a corresponding increase in performances of his works did not occur until he began conducting them himself, starting in the mid-1880s.[90] Nevertheless, by 1880, all of the operas Tchaikovsky had completed up that point had been staged, and his orchestral works had been given performances that had been sympathetically received.[91]

Nadezhda von Meck

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Se även: Nadezhda von Meck
Nadezhda von Meck, Tchaikovsky's patroness and confidante from 1877 to 1890

Nadezhda von Meck was the wealthy widow of a Russian railway tycoon and an influential patron of the arts. Having already heard some of Tchaikovsky's work, she was encouraged by Kotek to commission some chamber pieces from him.[92] Her support became an important element in Tchaikovsky's life; she eventually paid him an annual subsidy of 6,000 rubles, which made it possible for him to resign from the Moscow Conservatory in October 1878 at the age of 38, and concentrate on composition.[93] With von Meck's patronage came a relationship that, at her insistence, was mainly epistolary – she stipulated they were never to meet face to face. They exchanged well over 1,000 letters between 1877 and 1890. In these letters Tchaikovsky was more open about much of his life and his creative processes than he had been to any other person.[94]

As well as being a dedicated supporter of Tchaikovsky's musical works, von Meck became a vital enabler in his day-to-day existence.[95] As he explained to her,

There is something so special about our relationship that it often stops me in my tracks with amazement. I have told you more than once, I believe, that you have come to seem to me the hand of Fate itself, watching over me and protecting me. The very fact that I do not know you personally, while feeling so close to you, accords you in my eyes the special status of an unseen but benevolent presence, like a benign Providence.[96]

In 1884 Tchaikovsky and von Meck became related by marriage when one of her sons, Nikolay, married Tchaikovsky's niece Anna Davydova.[97] However, in 1890 von Meck suddenly ended the relationship. She was suffering from health problems that made writing difficult; there were family pressures, and also financial difficulties arising from the mismanagement of her estate by her son Vladimir.[98] The break with Tchaikovsky was announced in a letter delivered by a trusted servant, rather than by the usual postal service. It contained a request that he not forget her, and was accompanied by a year's subsidy in advance. She claimed bankruptcy, which, if not literally true, was evidently a real threat at the time.[99]

Tchaikovsky may have been aware for nearly a year of his patroness's financial difficulties.[100] This did not stop him from continuing to take his allowance for granted (with regular protestations of his eternal gratitude), nor did he offer to return the advance he had received with the farewell letter. Despite his growing celebrity throughout Europe, von Meck's allowance still made up a third of the composer's income.[100] While he may have no longer needed her money as much as in the past, the loss of her friendship and encouragement was devastating; he remained bewildered and resentful about her abrupt disappearance for the remaining three years of his life.[101]

Years of wandering

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Emperor Alexander III, who remained a devotee of Tchaikovsky's music, conferred an award and a lifelong pension to the composer.

Tchaikovsky returned to Moscow Conservatory in the autumn of 1879, having been away from Russia for a year after the disintegration of his marriage. However, he quickly resigned, settling in Kamenka yet traveling incessantly.[102] During these years, assured of a regular income from von Meck, he wandered around Europe and rural Russia, never staying long in any one place and living mainly alone, avoiding social contact whenever possible.[102] This may have been due in part to troubles with Antonina, who would alternately agree to, then refuse, divorce, at one point exacerbating matters by moving into an apartment directly above her husband's.[103] Tchaikovsky listed Antonina's accusations to him in detail to Modest: "I am a deceiver who married her in order to hide my true nature ... I insulted her every day, her sufferings at my hands were great ... she is appalled by my shameful vice, etc., etc." It is possible that he lived the rest of his life in dread of Antonina's power to expose publicly his sexual leanings.[104] These factors may explain why, except for the piano trio which he wrote upon the death of Nikolai Rubinstein, his best work from this period is found in genres which did not depend heavily on personal expression.[103]

While Tchaikovsky's reputation grew rapidly outside Russia, it was, as Alexandre Benois wrote in his memoirs, "considered obligatory [in progressive musical circles in Russia] to treat Tchaikovsky as a renegade, a master overly dependent on the West."[105] In 1880 this assessment changed, practically overnight. During commemoration ceremonies for the Pushkin Monument in Moscow, Dostoyevsky charged that Alexander Pushkin had given a prophetic call to Russia for "universal unity" with the West.[105] An unprecedented acclaim for Dostoyevsky's message spread throughout Russia, and disdain for Tchaikovsky's music dissipated. He even drew a cult following among the young intelligentsia of St. Petersburg, including Benois, Léon Bakst and Sergei Diaghilev.[106]

Cathedral of Christ the Saviour, Moscow in 1903

In 1880 the Cathedral of Christ the Saviour, commissioned by Tsar Alexander I to commemorate the defeat of Napoleon in 1812, was nearing completion in Moscow; the 25th anniversary of the coronation of Alexander II would be at hand in 1881;[a 1] and the 1882 Moscow Arts and Industry Exhibition was in the planning stage. Nikolai Rubinstein suggested a grand commemorative piece for use in related festivities. Tchaikovsky began the project in October 1880, finishing it within six weeks. He wrote to von Meck that the resulting work, the 1812 Overture, would be "very loud and noisy, but I wrote it with no warm feeling of love, and therefore there will probably be no artistic merits in it."[107] He also warned conductor Eduard Nápravník that "I shan't be at all surprised and offended if you find that it is in a style unsuitable for symphony concerts."[107] Nevertheless, this work has become for many, as Tchaikovsky authority Professor David Brown phrased it, "the piece by Tchaikovsky they know best."[108]

On March 23, 1881, Nikolai Rubinstein died in Paris. Tchaikovsky was holidaying in Rome, and he went immediately to attend the funeral in Paris for his greatly respected mentor, but arrived too late (although he was part of a group of people who saw Rubinstein's coffin off on a train back to Russia).[109] In December, he started work on his Piano Trio in A minor, "dedicated to the memory of a great artist."[110] The trio was first performed privately at the Moscow Conservatory, where Rubinstein had been director, on the first anniversary of his death by three of its staff—pianist Sergei Taneyev, violinist Jan Hřímalý and cellist Wilhelm Fitzenhagen.[111] The piece became extremely popular during the composer's lifetime and, in an ironic twist of fate, would become Tchaikovsky's own elegy when played at memorial concerts in Moscow and St. Petersburg in November 1893.[112]

Return to Russia

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During 1884, now 44 years old, Tchaikovsky began to shed his unsociability and restlessness. In March of that year Tsar Alexander III conferred upon him the Order of St. Vladimir (fourth class), which carried with it hereditary nobility[113] and won Tchaikovsky a personal audience with the Tsar.[114] The Tsar's decoration was a visible seal of official approval, that helped Tchaikovsky's social rehabilitation.[113] This rehabilitation may have been cemented in the composer's mind with the extreme success of his Third Orchestral Suite at its January 1885 premiere in Saint Petersburg, under Hans von Bülow's direction.[115] Tchaikovsky wrote to Nadezhda von Meck: "I have never seen such a triumph. I saw the whole audience was moved, and grateful to me. These moments are the finest adornments of an artist's life. Thanks to these it is worth living and laboring."[116] The press was likewise unanimously favorable.[115]

Tchaikovsky's last home, in Klin, now the Tchaikovsky Museum

In 1885, after Tchaikovsky resettled in Russia, the Tsar asked personally for a new production of Eugene Onegin to be staged in Saint Petersburg. The opera had previously been seen only in Moscow, produced by a student ensemble from the Conservatory. Though critical reception to the Saint Petersburg production of Onegin was negative, the opera drew full houses every night; 15 years later the composer's brother Modest identified this as the moment Tchaikovsky became known and appreciated by the masses, and he achieved the greatest degree of popularity ever accorded to a Russian composer. News of the opera's success spread, and the work was produced by opera houses throughout Russia and abroad.[117]

A feature of the Saint Petersburg production of Onegin was that Alexander III requested that the opera be staged not at the Mariyinsky Theater but at the Bolshoi Kamennïy Theater. This served notice that Tchaikovsky's music was replacing Italian opera as the official imperial art. In addition, thanks to Ivan Vsevolozhsky, Director of the Imperial Theaters and a patron of the composer, Tchaikovsky was awarded a lifetime pension of 3,000 rubles per year from the Tsar. This essentially made him the premier court composer, in practice if not in actual title.[118]

While he still felt a disdain for public life, Tchaikovsky now participated in it for two reasons—his increasing celebrity and what he felt was his duty to promote Russian music.[114] To this end, he helped support his former pupil Taneyev, who was now director of Moscow Conservatory, by attending student examinations and negotiating the sometimes sensitive relations among various members of the staff.[114] Tchaikovsky also served as director of the Moscow branch of the Russian Musical Society during the 1889-1890 season. In this post, he invited a number of international celebrities to conduct, including Johannes Brahms, Antonín Dvořák and Jules Massenet.[114] Once that season, when a percussionist's lackluster performance in rehearsal threatened to undermine Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov's conducting of his Capriccio Espagnol, Tchaikovsky offered to play the castanets himself. This action galvanized the orchestra to follow Rimsky-Korsakov's direction without further question.[114]

Another area in which Tchaikovsky promoted Russian music in general as well as his own compositions was as a guest conductor.[114] In January 1887 he substituted at the Bolshoi Theater in Moscow on short notice for the first three performances of his opera Cherevichki.[119] Conducting was something the composer had wanted to conquer for at least a decade, as he saw that success outside Russia depended to some extent on his conducting his own works.[120] Within a year of the Cherevichki performances, Tchaikovsky was in considerable demand throughout Europe and Russia, which helped him overcome a life-long stage fright and boosted his self-assurance.[121] He wrote to von Meck, "Would you now recognize in this Russian musician traveling across Europe that man who, only a few years ago, had absconded from life in society and lived in seclusion abroad or in the country!!!"[122] In 1888 he conducted the premiere of his Fifth Symphony in Saint Petersburg, repeating the work a week later with the premiere of his tone poem Hamlet. While both works were received with extreme enthusiasm by audiences, critics proved hostile, with César Cui calling the symphony "routine" and "meretricious."[123] Nevertheless, Tchaikovsky continued to conduct the symphony in Russia and Europe.[124] Conducting brought him to America in 1891, where he led the New York Music Society's orchestra in his Festival Coronation March at the inaugural concert of New York's Carnegie Hall.[125]

Belyayev circle

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Se även: Tchaikovsky and the Belyayev circle
Portrait of Glazunov by Ilya Repin, 1887.

In November 1887, Tchaikovsky arrived in Saint Petersburg in time to hear several of the Russian Symphony Concerts, which were devoted exclusively to the music of Russian composers. One of these concerts included the first complete performance of the final version of his First Symphony; another featured the premiere of the revised version of Rimsky-Korsakov's Third Symphony.[126] Before this visit Tchaikovsky had spent much time keeping in touch with Rimsky-Korsakov and those around him.[127] Rimsky-Korsakov, along with Alexander Glazunov, Anatoly Lyadov and several other nationalistically-minded composers and musicians, had formed a group called the Belyayev circle.[128] This group was named after timber merchant Mitrofan Belyayev, an amateur musician who became a influential music patron and publisher after he had taken an interest in Glazunov's work.[128] (Belyayev also funded the Russian Symphony Concerts as a forum for native composers to have their works heard in public.)[128] During Tchaikovsky's visit, he spent much time in the company of Glazunov, Lyadov and Rimsky-Korsakov, and the somewhat fraught relationship he had endured with the Belyayev circle's predecessor, The Five, would meld into something more harmonious. This relationship would last until Tchaikovsky's death in late 1893.[129][130]

A side benefit of Tchaikovsky's friendship with Glazunov, Lyadov and Rimsky-Korsakov was an increased confidence in his own abilities as a composer, along with a willingness to let his musical works stand alongside those of his contemporaries. Tchaikovsky wrote to von Meck in January 1889, after being once again well-represented in Belyayev's concerts, that he had "always tried to place myself outside all parties and to show in every way possible that I love and respect every honorable and gifted public figure in music, whatever his tendency", and that he considered himself "flattered to appear on the concert platform" beside composers in the Belyayev circle.[131] This was an acknowledgment of wholehearted readiness for his music to be heard with that of these composers, delivered in a tone of implicit confidence that there were no comparisons from which to fear.[132]

In 1892, Tchaikovsky was voted a member of the Académie des Beaux-Arts in France; he was only the second Russian, after the sculptor Mark Antokolsky, to be so honored.[133] The following year, the University of Cambridge in Britain awarded Tchaikovsky an honorary Doctor of Music degree.[134]

Death

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Se även: Death of Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky
Tchaikovsky's tomb at the Alexander Nevsky Monastery

Tchaikovsky died in Saint Petersburg on November 6, 1893, nine days after the premiere of his Sixth Symphony, the Pathétique. Though only 53 years old, he lived a long life compared to many 19th century composers. He was interred in Tikhvin Cemetery at the Alexander Nevsky Monastery, near the graves of fellow-composers Alexander Borodin, Mikhail Glinka, Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, Mily Balakirev and Modest Mussorgsky.[135] Because of the Pathétique's formal innovation and the overwhelming emotional content of its outer movements, the work was received by the public with silent incomprehension at its first performance.[136] The second performance, led by Nápravník, took place 20 days later at a memorial concert[137] and was much more favorably received.[138] The Pathétique has since become one of Tchaikovsky's best known works.

Tchaikovsky's death has traditionally been attributed to cholera, most probably contracted through drinking contaminated water several days earlier.[139] However, some, including English musicologist and Tchaikovsky authority David Brown and biographer Anthony Holden, have theorized that his death was a suicide. According to one variation of the theory, a sentence of suicide was imposed in a "court of honor" by Tchaikovsky's fellow alumni of the St. Petersburg Imperial School of Jurisprudence, as a censure of the composer's homosexuality. This unproven theory was first broached publicly by Russian musicologist Alexandra Orlova in 1979, when she emigrated to the West.[1] Wiley writes in the New Grove (2001), "The polemics over [Tchaikovsky's] death have reached an impasse ... Rumor attached to the famous die hard ... As for illness, problems of evidence offer little hope of satisfactory resolution: the state of diagnosis; the confusion of witnesses; disregard of long-term effects of smoking and alcohol. We do not know how Tchaikovsky died. We may never find out ..."[2]

Music

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Se även: List of compositions by Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, Music of Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky och Symphonies by Tchaikovsky
Original cast of Tchaikovsky's ballet, The Sleeping Beauty, Saint Petersburg, 1890

Tchaikovsky wrote many works which are popular with the classical music public, including his Romeo and Juliet, the 1812 Overture, his three ballets (The Nutcracker, Swan Lake, The Sleeping Beauty) and Marche Slave. These, along with two of his four concertos, three of his six numbered symphonies and, of his 10 operas, The Queen of Spades and Eugene Onegin, are probably among his most familiar works. Almost as popular are the Manfred Symphony, Francesca da Rimini, the Capriccio Italien and the Serenade for Strings. His three string quartets and piano trio all contain beautiful passages, while recitalists still perform some of his 106 songs.[140] Tchaikovsky also wrote over a hundred piano works, covering the entire span of his creative life. Brown has asserted that "while some of these can be challenging technically, they are mostly charming, unpretentious compositions intended for amateur pianists."[141] He adds, however, that "there is more attractive and resourceful music in some of these pieces than one might be inclined to expect."[142]

Creative range

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Tchaikovsky's formal conservatory training allowed him to write works with Western-oriented attitudes and techniques. His music showcases a wide range and breadth of technique, from a poised "Classical" form simulating 18th century Rococo elegance, to a style more characteristic of Russian nationalists, or (according to Brown) a musical idiom expressly to channel his own overwrought emotions.[143] Despite his reputation as a "weeping machine,"[140] self-expression was not a central principle for Tchaikovsky. In a letter to von Meck dated December 5, 1878, he explained there were two kinds of inspiration for a symphonic composer, a subjective and an objective one, and that program music could and should exist, just as it was impossible to demand that literature make do without the epic element and limit itself to lyricism alone. Correspondingly, the large scale orchestral works Tchaikovsky composed can be divided into two categories—symphonies in one category, and other works such as symphonic poems in the other.[144] According to musicologist Francis Maes, program music such as Francesca da Rimini or the Manfred Symphony was as much a part of the composer's artistic credo as the expression of his "lyric ego."[145] Maes also identifies a group of compositions which fall outside the dichotomy of program music versus "lyrical ego," where he hearkens toward pre-Romantic aesthetics. Works in this group include the four orchestral suites, Capriccio Italien, the Violin Concerto and the Serenade for Strings.[146]

One of the recognizable characteristics of Tchaikovsky’s works is his use of harmony or rhythm to create a sudden, powerful release of emotion. Like the other Romantic composers of the era, Tchaikovsky colored his works with rich harmonies, utilizing German Augmented Sixth chords, minor triads with added major sixths, and augmented triads. These colorful harmonies progressed to moments of extreme emotion. Though the peaks were preceded by building tension, Tchaikovsky was often criticized for his lack of development throughout his material. Yet what critics failed to accept was that fact that Tchaikovsky was not attempting to smoothly develop his works, but rather disregard seamless flow and embrace the intense emotion created by momentous bursts of fervid harmonies.[147]

Reception and reputation

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Although Tchaikovsky's music has always been popular with audiences, it has at times been judged harshly by musicians and composers. However, his reputation as a significant composer is now generally regarded as secure.[3] The initially criticized Swan Lake is currently seen as the first step in Tchaikovsky’s reputation as one of the most important and talented ballet composers.[148] His music has won a significant following among concert audiences that is second only to the music of Beethoven,[2] thanks in large part to what Harold C. Schonberg terms "a sweet, inexhaustible, supersensuous fund of melody ... touched with neuroticism, as emotional as a scream from a window on a dark night."[149] According to Wiley, this combination of supercharged melody and surcharged emotion polarized listeners, with popular appeal of Tchaikovsky's music counterbalanced by critical disdain of it as vulgar and lacking in elevated thought or philosophy.[2] More recently, Tchaikovsky's music has received a professional reevaluation, with musicians reacting more favorably to its tunefulness and craftsmanship.[140]

Public considerations

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Tchaikovsky believed that his professionalism in combining skill and high standards in his musical works separated him from his contemporaries in The Five. He shared several of their ideals, including an emphasis on national character in music. His aim, however, was to link those ideals to a standard high enough to satisfy Western European criteria. His professionalism also fueled his desire to reach a broad public, not just nationally but internationally, which he would eventually do.[150]

He may also have been influenced by the almost "eighteenth-century" patronage prevalent in Russia at the time, which was still strongly influenced by its aristocracy. In this style of patronage, the patron and the artist often met on equal terms. Dedications of works to patrons were not gestures of humble gratitude but expressions of artistic partnership. The dedication of the Fourth Symphony to von Meck is known to be a seal on their friendship. Tchaikovsky's relationship with Duke Konstantin Konstantinovich bore creative fruit in the Six Songs, Op. 63, for which the grand duke wrote the words.[151] Tchaikovsky found no aesthetic conflict in playing to the tastes of his audiences, though it was never established that he satisfied any other tastes but his own. The patriotic themes and stylization of 18th-century melodies in his works lined up with the values of the Russian aristocracy.[152]

Compositional style

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Valse in F-sharp minor (filinformation)
From Twelve Pieces for piano, Op. 40, No. 9, a digital recording by Kevin MacLeod


According to Brown in the New Grove (1980), Tchaikovsky's melodies ranged "from Western style to folksong stylizations and occasionally folksongs themselves."[153] His use of repetitions within these melodies generally reflect the sequential style of Western practices, which he sometimes extended at immense length, building "into an emotional experience of almost unbearable intensity."[153] He experimented occasionally with unusual meters, although more usually, as in his dance tunes, he employed a firm, essentially regular meter that "sometimes becomes the main expressive agent in some movements due to its vigorous use."[153] Tchaikovsky also practiced a wide range of harmony, from the Western harmonic and textural practices of his first two string quartets to the use of the whole tone scale in the center of the finale of the Second Symphony; the latter was a practice more typically used by The Five.[153] Since Tchaikovsky wrote most of his music for the orchestra, his musical textures became increasingly conditioned by the orchestral colors he employed, especially after the Second Orchestral Suite. Brown maintains that while the composer was grounded in Western orchestral practices, he "preferred bright and sharply differentiated orchestral coloring in the tradition established by Glinka."[153] He tends to exploit primarily the treble instruments for their "fleet delicacy,"[153] though he balances this tendency with "a matching exploration of the darker, even gloomy sounds of the bass instruments."[153]

Impact

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Wiley cites Tchaikovsky as "the first composer of a new Russian type, fully professional, who firmly assimilated traditions of Western European symphonic mastery; in a deeply original, personal and national style he unified the symphonic thought of Beethoven and Schumann with the works of Glinka, and transformed Liszt's and Berlioz's achievements in depictive-programmatic music into matters of Shakespearean elevation and psychological import."[154]

Holden maintains that Tchaikovsky was the first legitimate professional Russian composer, stating that only traditions of folksong and music for the Russian Orthodox Church existed before Tchaikovsky's birth. Holden continues, "Twenty years after Tchaikovsky's death, in 1913, Igor Stravinsky's The Rite of Spring erupted onto the musical scene, signalling Russia's arrival into 20th century music. Between these two very different worlds Tchaikovsky's music became the sole bridge."[155]

Russian musicologist Solomon Volkov maintains that Tchaikovsky was perhaps the first Russian composer to think seriously about his country's place in European musical culture.[156] As the composer wrote to von Meck from Paris,

How pleasant it is to be convinced firsthand of the success of our literature in France. Every book étalage displays translations of Tolstoy, Turgenev, and Dostoyevsky ... The newspapers are constantly printing rapturous articles about one or another of these writers. Perhaps such a time will come for Russian music as well![157]

Tchaikovsky became the first Russian composer to personally acquaint foreign audiences with his own works, as well as those of other Russian composers.[158] He also formed close business and personal ties with many of the leading musicians of Europe and the United States. For Russians, Volkov asserts, this was all something new and unusual.[159]

Finally, the impact of Tchaikovsky's own works, especially in ballet, cannot be underestimated; his mastery of danseuse (melodies which match physical movements perfectly), along with vivid orchestration, effective themes and continuity of thought were unprecedented in the genre,[160] setting new standards for the role of music in classical ballet.[161] Noel Goodwin characterized Swan Lake as "one of [ballet's] enduring masterworks"[161] and The Sleeping Beauty as "the supreme example of 19th century classical ballet,"[162] while Wiley called the latter work "powerful, diverse and rhythmically complex."[163]

See also

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Footnotes

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  1. ^ This celebration did not take place as Alexander II was assassinated in March 1881.

Notes

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  1. ^ [a b] Brown, Man and Music, 431–35; Holden, 373–400.
  2. ^ [a b c d] Wiley, New Grove (2001), 25:169.
  3. ^ [a b] Brown, New Grove (1980), 18:628–29.
  4. ^ [a b] Holden, 4.
  5. ^ [a b c d] Poznansky, Eyes, 1.
  6. ^ Poznansky, Eyes, 1–2.
  7. ^ [a b] Holden, 5.
  8. ^ Brown, Early Years, 22.
  9. ^ Brown, Early Years, 20.
  10. ^ Brown, Early Years, 19.
  11. ^ Citat ur Brown, Early Years, 21: "From the testimony of people who knew her, she was a tall stately woman, not particularly beautiful, but with an enchanting expression in her eyes, and looks that involuntarily drew one's attention. Certainly all who saw her unanimously affirm that there was something exceptionally attractive about her appearance".
  12. ^ Citat ur Poznansky, Eyes, 2: "…owing to his excellent social connections and excellent knowledge of almost every European language".
  13. ^ Poznansky, Eyes, 2.
  14. ^ Brown, Early Years, 21.
  15. ^ Holden, 6, 13; Warrack, Tchaikovsky, 18.
  16. ^ Poznansky, Eyes, 2.
  17. ^ Holden, 31.
  18. ^ Holden, 202.
  19. ^ Holden, 202.
  20. ^ [a b] Holden, 43.
  21. ^ [a b] Brown, Early Years, 22.
  22. ^ Holden, 7.
  23. ^ Holden, 8.
  24. ^ Holden, 6.
  25. ^ Alexander Poznansky är forskare vid Yale University, The Slavic and East European Catalog and Metadata Services.
  26. ^ Poznansky, Quest, 5.
  27. ^ Wiley, Grove Music
  28. ^ Åstrand Hans, red (1979). Sohlmans musiklexikon. 5, Particell-Øyen. Stockholm: Sohlman. Libris 8372042. ISBN 91-7198-025-3 (inb.) 
  29. ^ Holden, 14; Warrack, Tchaikovsky, 26.
  30. ^ Holden, 20.
  31. ^ Brown, Early Years, 46.
  32. ^ Brown, Early Years, 47.
  33. ^ Citat ur Holden, 23: "a huge influence on the way things turned out for me."
  34. ^ Brown, Early Years, 47; Holden, 23.; Warrack, 29.
  35. ^ Citat ur Holden, 23: "Every moment of that appalling day is as vivid to me as though it were yesterday."
  36. ^ [a b] Holden, 23.
  37. ^ Holden, 24, 26.; Poznansky, Quest, 32–37.; Warrack, Tchaikovsky, 30
  38. ^ Holden, 24.
  39. ^ Holden, 24; Poznansky, Quest, 26
  40. ^ Citat ur Holden, 25: "We were amused, but not imbued with any expectations of his future glory."
  41. ^ Holden, 24–25; Warrack, Tchaikovsky, 31.
  42. ^ Brown, Man and Music, 14.
  43. ^ Citat i Holden, 38–39: "until I am quite certain that I am destined to be a musician rather than a civil servant."
  44. ^ Brown, Man and Music, 20; Warrack, Tchaikovsky, 36–38.
  45. ^ Brown, New Grove, 18:608.
  46. ^ Holden, 52.
  47. ^ Citat i Brown, Early Years, 84: "then at least somewhere or other [the cantata] would have broken through the fetters of the Conservatoire".
  48. ^ Citat i Brown, Early Years, 95-96: "My vision grew dark, my head span, and I ran out of the café like a madman.... All day I wandered aimlessly through the city, repeating, 'I'm sterile, insignificant, nothing will come out of me, I'm ungifted'".
  49. ^ Holden, 64.
  50. ^ Holden, 62.
  51. ^ Maes, 44.
  52. ^ Brown, Early Years, 128; Holden, 63.
  53. ^ Brown, Tchaikovsky: Man and Music, 49.
  54. ^ Maes, 49.
  55. ^ Holden, 51–52.
  56. ^ Holden, 83; Warrack, Tchaikovsky, 61.
  57. ^ Steinberg, Concerto, 474–76.
  58. ^ Steinberg, Concerto, 476.
  59. ^ [a b c] Wiley, New Grove (2001), 25:147.
  60. ^ Wiley, New Grove (2001), 25:153.
  61. ^ Brown, Man and Music, 60, 269–275; Holden, 80, 313–314; Jackson, 38-39; Poznansky, Quest, 133.
  62. ^ Brown, Man and Music, 269–275; Holden, 234-236; Jackson, 38-39; Poznansky, Quest, 408.
  63. ^ Holden, 313.
  64. ^ Brown, Final Years, 218.
  65. ^ Poznansky, Quest, 558.
  66. ^ Citat från Holden, 394: "eventually came to see his sexual peculiarities as an insurmountable and even natural part of his personality ... without experiencing any serious psychological damage.".
  67. ^ Poznansky, Tchaikovsky Through Others' Eyes, 8, 24, 77, 82.
  68. ^ Poznansky, Tchaikovsky Through Others' Eyes, 103–105, 165–168. Se även P.I. Chaikovskii. Al'manakh, vypusk 1, (Moscow, 1995).
  69. ^ Zajaczkowski, Henry, The Musical Times, cxxxiii, no. 1797, November 1992, 574. As quoted in Holden, 394: "One consequence of it may be sexual overindulgence as a kind of false solution: the individual thereby persuades himself that he does accept his sexual impulses. Complementing this and, also, as a psychological defense mechanism, would be precisely the idolization by Tchaikovsky of many of the young men of his circle [the self-styled "Fourth Suite"], to which Poznansky himself draws attention. If the composer's response to possible sexual objects was either to use and discard them or to idolize them, it shows that he was unable to form an integrated, secure relationship with another man. That, surely, was [Tchaikovsky's] tragedy."
  70. ^ [a b c d] Wiley, New Grove (2001), 25:147: "Amateurish criticism to the contrary, there is no warrant to assume, this period [of his short-lived marriage] excepted, that Tchaikovsky's sexuality ever deeply impaired his inspiration, or made his music idiosyncratically confessional or incapable of philosophical utterance.".
  71. ^ Brown, Early Years, 156–157; Warrack, Tchaikovsky, 53.
  72. ^ Brown, Early Years, 197–200.
  73. ^ ”Artôt, Désirée (1835–1907)” (på engelska). Schubertiade music. https://www.schubertiademusic.com/lots/search/multiple_catalogs:yes. Läst 25 mars 2010. 
  74. ^ [a b] Poznansky, Quest, 204.
  75. ^ Poznansky är övertygad om att också Shilovsky var homosexuell och att Tjajkovskij och denne hade haft en relation i mer än tio år. (Poznansky, Quest 95, 126).
  76. ^ Tchaikovsky, M.I., Zhizn' Petra Il'icha Chaikovskoyo [Life of Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky], 3 vols. (Moscow and Leipzig, 1900–1902), 1:258–259.
  77. ^ brev till Modest Tjajkovskij, 31 augusti 1876. Citerat i Holden, 113.
  78. ^ Holden, 126, 145, 148, 150.
  79. ^ Brown, Man and Music, 230, 232; Holden, 209.
  80. ^ [a b] Holden, 172.
  81. ^ Citat ur Brown, Crisis Years, 254.
  82. ^ Brev till Anatoly Tjajkovskij den 25 februari 1878. Citerat i Holden, 172
  83. ^ [a b c] Brown, Crisis Years, 159.
  84. ^ Steinberg, Concerto, 484–85.
  85. ^ Steinberg, Concerto, 487.
  86. ^ Hanslick, Eduard, Music Criticisms 1850–1900, ed. and trans. Henry Pleasants (Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1963). As quoted in Steinberg, Concerto, 487.
  87. ^ As quoted in Steinberg, Concerto, 486.
  88. ^ [a b c] Volkov, 115.
  89. ^ Osoovski, A.V., Muzykal'no-kritcvheskie stat'i, 1894–1912 (Musical Criticism articles, 1894–1912) (Leningrad, 1971), 171. As quoted in Volkov, 116.
  90. ^ [a b c] Wiley, New Grove (2001), 25:161.
  91. ^ Warrack, Tchaikovsky Symphonies and Concertos, 28.
  92. ^ Brown, Crisis Years, 129–130.
  93. ^ Brown, Man and Music, 171–172.
  94. ^ Brown, Man and Music, 134; Warrack, Tchaikovsky, 108, 130–33.
  95. ^ Brown, Man and Music, 134.
  96. ^ Letter to von Meck, January 21, 1878. As quoted in Holden, 159.
  97. ^ Holden, 231–32.
  98. ^ Holden, 289.
  99. ^ Brown, Man and Music, 384–86; Holden, 289; Warrack, Tchaikovsky, 241.
  100. ^ [a b] Holden, 292.
  101. ^ Brown, Final Years, 287–289; Holden, 293; Poznansky, Quest, 521, 526; Warrack, Tchaikovsky, 242.
  102. ^ [a b] Brown, Man and Music, 219.
  103. ^ [a b] Brown, New Grove, 18:619.
  104. ^ Holden, 155
  105. ^ [a b] Volkov, 126.
  106. ^ Volkov, St. Petersburg, 122–123.
  107. ^ [a b] As quoted in Brown, Wandering, 119.
  108. ^ Brown, Man and Music, 224.
  109. ^ Warrack, Tchaikovsky, 172
  110. ^ As quoted in Brown, Wandering, 151.
  111. ^ Brown, Wandering, 151.
  112. ^ Brown, Wandering, 152.
  113. ^ [a b] Brown, New Grove, 18:621.
  114. ^ [a b c d e f] Wiley, New Grove (2001), 25:162.
  115. ^ [a b] Brown, Man and Music, 275.
  116. ^ As quoted in Brown, Man and Music, 275.
  117. ^ Brown, Man and Music, 282.
  118. ^ Maes, 140.
  119. ^ Holden, 261; Warrack, Tchaikovsky, 197.
  120. ^ Brown, Crisis Years, 133.
  121. ^ Holden, 266; Warrack, Tchaikovsky, 232.
  122. ^ As quoted in Brown, Tchaikovsky: The Man and His Music, 329.
  123. ^ Holden, 272.
  124. ^ Holden, 273.
  125. ^ Brown, Final Years, 319–320
  126. ^ Brown, Final Years, 91.
  127. ^ Brown, Final Years, 90.
  128. ^ [a b c] Maes, 173.
  129. ^ Poznansky, 564.
  130. ^ Rimsky-Korsakov, 308.
  131. ^ Quoted in Brown, Final Years, 91–92.
  132. ^ Brown, Final Years, 92.
  133. ^ Poznansky, Quest, 548-549.
  134. ^ Warrack, Tchaikovsky, 264.
  135. ^ Brown, Final Years, 487.
  136. ^ Holden, 351.
  137. ^ Steinberg, 635.
  138. ^ Holden, 371.
  139. ^ Brown, Man and Music, 431–32; Holden, 371; Warrack, Tchaikovsky, 269–270.
  140. ^ [a b c] Schonberg, 367.
  141. ^ Brown, Man and Music, 118.
  142. ^ Brown, The Final Years, 408.
  143. ^ Brown, New Grove, 18:606.
  144. ^ Wood, 75.
  145. ^ Maes, 154.
  146. ^ Maes, 154–155.
  147. ^ Zajaczkowski 25
  148. ^ Brown, 2007, 117
  149. ^ Schonberg, 366.
  150. ^ Maes (2002), 73.
  151. ^ Maes, 139–141.
  152. ^ Maes, 137.
  153. ^ [a b c d e f g] Brown, New Grove (1980), 18:628.
  154. ^ Wiley, New Grove (2001), 25:144.
  155. ^ Holden, xxi.
  156. ^ Volkov, Solomon, St. Petersburg: A Cultural History (New York: The Free Press, A Division of Simon & Schuster, Inc., 1995)126.
  157. ^ Tchaikovsky, Pyotr Ilyich, Polnoe sobranie sochinenii. Literaturnye proizvedeniia i perepiska (Complete Collected Works. Literary Works and Correspondence), vol 13 (Moscow, 1971), 349. As quoted in Volkov, 126.
  158. ^ Warrack, 209.
  159. ^ Volkov, 126
  160. ^ Wiley, New Grove (2001), 25:152–153.
  161. ^ [a b] Goodwin, New Grove (1980), 5:205.
  162. ^ Goodwin, New Grove (1980), 5:206–207.
  163. ^ Wiley, New Grove (2001), 25:165.

Referenser

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  • Abraham Gerald, red (1946) (på engelska). The music of Tchaikovsky. New York. Libris 1744377 
    • Lockspeiser, Edward, "Tchaikovsky the Man"
    • Cooper, Martin, "The Symphonies"
    • Blom, Eric, "Works for Solo Instrument and Orchestra"
    • Wood, Ralph W., "Miscellaneous Orchestral Works"
    • Mason, Colin, "The Chamber Music"
    • Dickinson, A.E.F., "The Piano Music"
    • Abraham, Gerald, "Operas and Incidental Music"
    • Evans, Edwin, "The Ballets"
    • Alshvang, A., tr. I. Freiman, "The Songs"
    • Abraham, Gerald, "Religious and Other Choral Music"
  • Brown, David, ed. Stanley Sadie, "Tchaikovsky, Pyotr Ilyich", Sadie Stanley, Grove George, red (1980) (på engelska). The new Grove dictionary of music and musicians ([6. ed.]). London: Macmillan. Libris 4822746. ISBN 0-333-23111-2 (inb.) 
  • Brown, David, Tchaikovsky: The Early Years, 1840–1874 (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1978). ISBN 0-393-07535-2 (Felaktigt ISBN-10-nummer).
  • Brown, David, Tchaikovsky: The Crisis Years, 1874–1878, (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1983). ISBN 0-393-01707-9.
  • Brown, David, Tchaikovsky: The Years of Wandering, 1878–1885, (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1986). ISBN 0-393-02311-7.
  • Brown, David, Tchaikovsky: The Final Years, 1885–1893, (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1991). ISBN 0-393-03099-7.
  • Brown, David (2006) (på engelska). Tchaikovsky: the man and his music. London: Faber. Libris 10333450. ISBN 978-0-571-23194-2 
  • Figes, Orlando (2002) (på engelska). Natasha's dance: a cultural history of Russia. New York: Metropolitan Books. Libris 8817166. ISBN 0-8050-5783-8 
  • Goodwin, Noel, ed. Stanley Sadie, "Dance: VI. 19th Century, (iv) The classical ballet in Russia to 1900", The New Grove Encyclopedia of Music and Musicians (London: MacMillan, 1980), 20 vols. ISBN 0-333-23111-2.
  • Hanson, Lawrence and Hanson, Elisabeth, Tchaikovsky: The Man Behind the Music (New York: Dodd, Mead & Company). Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 66–13606.
  • Holden, Anthony (1995) (på engelska). Tchaikovsky: a biography (1st U.S. ed.). New York: Random House. Libris 5121274. ISBN 0-679-42006-1 
  • Jackson, Timothy L. (1999) (på engelska). Tchaikovsky, Symphony no. 6 (Pathétique). Cambridge music handbooks. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Libris 5026569. ISBN 0-521-64111-X (cased) 
  • Maes, Francis; Pomerans Arnold, Pomerans Erica (2002) (på engelska). A history of Russian music: from Kamarinskaya to Babi Yar. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press. Libris 5008081. ISBN 0-520-21815-9 (alk. paper) 
  • Močulʹskij, Konstantin Vasilʹevič, 1892-1948 (1967) (på engelska). Dostoevsky: his life and work. Princeton, N.J.. Libris 8144131 
  • Poznansky, Alexander (1991) (på engelska). Tchaikovsky: the quest for the inner man. New York: Schirmer. Libris 4474699. ISBN 0-02-871885-2 
  • Poznansky, Alexander. Tchaikovsky through others' eyes. (Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press, 1999). ISBN 0-253-33545-0. Google Books
  • Rimsky-Korsakov, Nikolai, Letoppis Moyey Muzykalnoy Zhizni (St. Petersburg, 1909), published in English as My Musical Life (New York: Knopf, 1925, 3rd ed. 1942). ISBN n/a.
  • Schonberg, Harold C. (1997) (på engelska). The lives of the great composers (3 uppl.). New York: W.W. Norton. Libris 4883112. ISBN 0-393-03857-2 
  • Steinberg, Michael (1998) (på engelska). The concerto: a listener's guide. New York: Oxford University Press. Libris 8276949. ISBN 0-19-510330-0 
  • Steinberg, Michael (1999[1995]) (på engelska). The symphony: a listener's guide. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Libris 4614288. ISBN 0-19-512665-3 (pbk) 
  • Tchaikovsky, Modest, Zhizn P.I. Chaykovskovo [Tchaikovsky's life], 3 vols. (Moscow, 1900–1902).
  • Tchaikovsky, Pyotr, Perepiska s N.F. von Meck [Correspondence with Nadzehda von Meck], 3 vols. (Moscow and Lenningrad, 1934–1936).
  • Tchaikovsky, Pyotr, Polnoye sobraniye sochinery: literaturnïye proizvedeniya i perepiska [Complete Edition: literary works and correspondence], 17 vols. (Moscow, 1953–1981).
  • Volkov, Solomon, tr. Bouis, Antonina W., St. Petersburg: A Cultural History (New York: The Free Press, a division of Simon & Schuster, Inc., 1995). ISBN 0-02-874052-1.
  • Warrack, John, Tchaikovsky Symphonies and Concertos (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1969). Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 78–105437.
  • Warrack, John, Tchaikovsky (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1973). SBN 684-13558-2.
  • Wiley, Roland John, Tchaikovsky's Ballets (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1985). ISBN 0-198-16249-9.
  • Wiley, Roland John. "Tchaikovsky, Pyotr Ilyich", Tyrrell John, Sadie Stanley, Grove George, red (2001) (på engelska). The new Grove dictionary of music and musicians (2. ed. /executive editor John Tyrrell). London: Macmillan. Libris 8283519. ISBN 0-333-60800-3 (Macmillan) 
  • Zajaczkowski, Henry. Tchaikovsky's Musical Style (Russian Music Studies, 19). Ann Arbor, MI: Umi Research Pr, 1987.

Vidare läsning

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  • Kamien, Roger. (2008) (på engelska). Music: an appreciation (9th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Libris 10966231. ISBN 978-0-07-352656-0 (alk. paper) *Paine John Knowles, Thomas Theodore, Klauser Karl, red (1891) (på engelska). Famous composers and their works. Vol. 2. Boston: J.B. Millet Company. Libris 10096985 * E. Evans : Tchaikovsky (London, 1906/R, 3/1966)
  • Garden, Edward (1993[1973]) (på engelska). Tchaikovsky. The Dent master musicians. London: Dent. Libris 4960980. ISBN 0-460-86110-7 (pbk) * Holden, Anthony. Tchaikovsky. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Penguin, 1997.
  • L. and E. Hanson : Tchaikovsky: a New Study of the Man and his Music (London, 1965)
  • Meck Galina Von, Tchaikovsky Ilyich Piotr, Young Percy M. Tchaikovsky Cooper Square Publishers; 1st Cooper Square Press edition (October, 2000) ISBN 0-8154-1087-5.
  • Tjajkovskij, Pjotr; Garden Edward, Meck Galina von, Mekk Nadežda Filaretovna fon, Gotteri Nigel (1993) (på engelska). "To my best friend": correspondence between Tchaikovsky and Nadezhda von Meck 1876-1878. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Libris 4622498. ISBN 0-19-816158-1 *Tjajkovskij, Pjotr; Young Percy M. (2000[1981]) (på engelska). Letters to his family: an autobiography (1. Cooper Square Press ed.). New York: Cooper Square Press. Libris 5754175. ISBN 0-8154-1087-5 (pbk. : alk. paper) *Review: Brown, David. "Review: Tchaikovsky Revealed." The Musical Times, 123 (Jan., 1982): 32
  • Norris, Geoffrey. "Tchaikovsky and the 18th Century." The Musical Times 118 (1977),715-16.
  • Poznansky, Alexander; Langston Brett (2002) (på engelska). The Tchaikovsky handbook: a guide to the man and his music. Vol. 1, Thematic catalogue of works, catalogue of photographs, autobiography. Russian music studies, 99-0354567-3. Bloomington: Indiana University. Libris 3311969. ISBN 0-253-33921-9 
  • Poznansky, Alexander; Langston Brett (2002) (på engelska). The Tchaikovsky handbook: a guide to the man and his music. Vol. 2, Catalogue of letters, genealogy, bibliography. Russian music studies, 99-0354567-3. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Libris 3311970. ISBN 0-253-33947-2 
  • Poznansky, Alexander (1996) (på engelska). Tchaikovsky's last days: a documentary study. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Libris 4622757. ISBN 0-19-816596-X 
  • Warrack, John Hamilton (1979) (på engelska). Tchaikovsky ballet music. BBC music guides, 99-0184170-4. London: British Broadcasting Corporation. Libris 5046761. ISBN 0-563-12860-7 
  • Review: Garden, Edward. "Review: Tchaikovsky in Perspective," The Musical Times (Oct. 1979), 831.
  • Bowen, Catherine Drinker; Meck Barbara von (1937) (på engelska). "Beloved friend": the story of Tchaikowsky and Nadeja von Meck. New York: Random House. Libris 1830734 
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Public domain sheet music

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{{featured article}} {{Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky|state=uncollapsed}} {{Persondata |NAME = Tchaikovsky, Pyotr Ilyich |ALTERNATIVE NAMES = Пётр Ильич Чайкoвский |SHORT DESCRIPTION = Ukrainian composer |DATE OF BIRTH = May 7, 1840 |PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Votkinsk]], [[Imperial Russia]] |DATE OF DEATH = November 6, 1893 |PLACE OF DEATH = St. Petersburg, Russia}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Tchaikovsky, Pyotr Ilyich}} [[Category:1840 births]] [[Category:1893 deaths]] [[Category:People from Udmurtia]] [[Category:Romantic composers]] [[Category:Russian composers]] [[Category:Gay musicians]] [[Category:Opera composers]] [[Category:Ballet composers]] [[Category:Saint Petersburg Conservatory alumni]] [[Category:Russian ballet]] [[Category:Russian Orthodox Christians]] [[Category:Russian music critics]] [[Category:Cause of death disputed]] [[Category:Imperial School of Jurisprudence alumni]] [[Category:Moscow Conservatory faculty]] [[Category:Russians of French descent]] [[Category:LGBT Christians]] [[Category:LGBT composers]] [[Category:LGBT people from Russia]] [[Category:Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky]] [[Category:Composers of Christian music]] [[Category:Russians of Ukrainian descent]] [[Category:Honorary Members of the Royal Philharmonic Society]]

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