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Indo-Parthian stone pallet with king and attendants from Gandhara, Pakistan.

The Middle Kingdoms of Pakistan were the empires and kingdoms in the Greater Indus region from about 230 BCE to 1206 CE. This time starts after the Maurya Empire declined around 185 BCE and includes several regional powers and empires that influenced the area. The period begins with the influence of successor states such as the Indo-Greeks, Indo-Scythians, Indo-Parthians, Huns, and later the Kushans.[1][2]

This "middle" era includes two different periods. The first, Classical Pakistan, starts from the decline of the Maurya Empire to the end of the Gupta Empire around 500 CE. It includes important changes in regional politics and culture.[3] The Gupta Empire was mainly in eastern India, it influenced the Greater Indus region through trade and cultural exchange.[4]

The second period, Early Medieval Pakistan, starts around 500 CE and continues through the rise of Islamic empires like the Umayyads, Ghaznavids, and Ghurids.[5] These empires played a important role in shaping the regional politics.[6] This time This period also includes the era of classical Hinduism, which is dated from approximately 200 BCE to 1100 CE.[7] The "middle" period lasted almost 1436 years and ended in 1206 CE with the start of the Delhi Sultanate.[8]

During the early part of this era, from 1 CE to around 1000 CE, Indo-Pakistan’s economy is thought to have been the largest in the world, holding between one-third and one-quarter of the world’s wealth.[9][10]

The Middle kingdoms

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During the 2nd century BCE, after the Maurya Empire declined, the northwest part of the subcontinent (Pakistan) saw the rise of various regional powers with overlapping borders. This region experienced many invasions between 200 BCE and 300 CE. The Hindu religious texts, the Puranas, describe many of these invading tribes as "Mlecchas," a term used to mean foreigners.[11]

Many of these invading groups became influenced by Buddhism, which continued to grow with their support and helped mix different cultural traditions. Over time, these invaders blended into the local culture, leading to a time of intellectual and artistic achievements driven by cultural and religious syncretism (mixing). This period saw the development of Gandharan art, known for its first human images of the Buddha, and the growth of Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism in the region.[12] The Gandhara art of Ancient Pakistan shows this unigue cultural blend and its importance along the Silk Road.[13]

The Indo-Greeks

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See the main article: Indo-Greek Kingdom
Hellenistic couple from Taxila, Pakistan.

The Indo-Greek Kingdom covered most of Pakistan from approximately 250 BCE to 10 CE and was ruled by over 30 Hellenistic kings, , who often fought with each other.

The kingdom was established when Demetrius I of Bactria invaded the Hindu Kush early in the 2nd century BCE. The Greeks in Pakistan eventually seperated from the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, which was centered in Bactria (now the border between Afghanistan and Uzbekistan).

The term "Indo-Greek Kingdom" broadly refers to several dynastic families in the region. Important cities such as Taxila,[14] Pushkalavati (Charsadda), Purushapura (Peshawar) and Sagala (Sialkot) in Pakistan’s Punjab and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa were capitals of these dynasties. According to Ptolemy’s Geography and the nomenclature of the later rulers, a place called Theophila in the south was likely an important administrative or royal center at some point.[15]

Euthydemus I, according to Polybius,[16] was a Greek from Magnesia. His son, Demetrius, who started the Indo-Greek kingdom, was Greek from his father. Demetrius married a daughter of Antiochus III the Great, who had some Persian ancestry.[17] The background of later Indo-Greek rulers is less clear.[18] For example, Artemidoros Aniketos (80 BCE) might have been of Indo-Scythian descent. There were also intermarriages among the Indo-Greeks.

During their rule, the Indo-Greek kings combined Greek and South Asian languages and symbols, as seen on their coins. They also blended Greek, Hindu, and Buddhist religious practices, as shown by the archaeological remains of their cities and their support of Buddhism. This cultural syncretism (mix) led to a rich blend of local and Hellenistic influences.[19] The spread of Indo-Greek culture had lasting effects, especially through the influence of Greco-Buddhist art in Pakistan. The Indo-Greeks eventually disappeared as a ruling power around 10 CE after invasions by the Indo-Scythians, although some Greek people likely stayed for several more centuries under the Indo-Parthians and the Kushan Empire.[20]

The Indo-Scythians

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The Indo-Scythians, also known as Western Scythians, were nomadic tribes from Central Asia who started moving into Pakistan around 130 BCE. Their arrival came after the fall of the Indo-Greek Kingdom. They set up several small kingdoms in areas like Gandhara and the Punjab. Rulers such as Maues (Moga) played a important role in establishing their rule and integrating with local culture.

During their time in the region, the Indo-Scythians continued the cultural syncretism (mixing) that had begun with the Indo-Greeks. They blended their own customs with those of the local people, as seen in their coins, which featured both Greek and Scythian designs. They also supported Buddhism, helping to build monasteries and influence the art of the region, particularly the Gandharan style that combined Greek and Buddhist elements.

Their control eventually weakened as the Kushan Empire began to rise in the early 1st century CE. The Kushans, led by their leader Kujula Kadphises, replaced the Indo-Scythians and took over their territories. Even though the Indo-Scythians no longer held power, their impact on art, culture, and trade continued to influence the region for many years. Indo-Scythian rule in Pakistan ended with the last of the Western Satraps, Rudrasimha III, in 395 CE.[21][22]

The Indo-Parthians

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See the main article: Indo-Parthian Kingdom
The Hellenistic temple with Ionic columns at Jandial, Taxila, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. It is usually interpreted as a Zoroastrian fire temple from the period of the Indo-Parthians.

The Indo-Parthians controlled parts of Pakistan from around the 1st century BCE to the early 1st century CE. They emerged after the decline of the Indo-Scythians and established their own rule in the region, with their power base in areas such as Gandhara and parts of Punjab, Pakistan.

The Indo-Parthians were influenced by both the local cultures and the broader Parthian Empire, which was based in Persia (modern-day Iran). They continued the traditions of their predecessors by blending their own customs with local practices. Their rule is noted for its contributions to trade and culture, as they maintained and expanded the trade routes that connected the subcontinent with Central Asia and beyond. This trade brought economic benefits and cultural exchanges to the region.

Over time, the Indo-Parthians began to lose their grip on the region as the Kushan Empire expanded its influence in the early 1st century CE. The Kushans eventually absorbed the territories held by the Indo-Parthians, marking the end of their rule.

Northern Satraps

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The Northern Satraps were a significant regional power in Pakistan and parts of northwestern India. Their rule began around 60 BCE and extended into the 2nd century CE. They were part of the broader Saka (Scythian) groups that migrated from Central Asia into the Indo-Pak subcontinent.

These Satraps ruled over areas that included most of Punjab and parts of northern Sindh in Pakistan. Their governance was characterized by a mixture of local traditions and Scythian customs. They established their own satrapies or provinces and maintained a degree of local autonomy while interacting with other contemporary powers such as the Kushans.

The Northern Satraps played a role in the trade networks. Despite their relatively short period of dominance, the Northern Satraps left a notable mark on the region’s historical and cultural landscape.

  • Grapevine designs of Gandhara, Pakistan
  • The Vasu doorjamb, dedicated to Vāsudeva "in the reign of Sodasa", circa 15 CE.
    The Vasu doorjamb, dedicated to Vāsudeva "in the reign of Sodasa", circa 15 CE.
  • Reliefs of the Mora doorjamb with grapevine design, Mora, near, circa 15 CE. Similar scroll designs are known from Gandhara, and from Greco-Roman art.
    Reliefs of the Mora doorjamb with grapevine design, Mora, near, circa 15 CE. Similar scroll designs are known from Gandhara, and from Greco-Roman art.
  • Garland bearers and Buddhist "Romaka" Jataka, in which the Buddha in a previous life was a pigeon.[24] 25-50 CE.[25] Similar garland-bearer designs are known from Gandhara and from Greco-Roman art.
    Garland bearers and Buddhist "Romaka" Jataka, in which the Buddha in a previous life was a pigeon.[24] 25-50 CE.[25] Similar garland-bearer designs are known from Gandhara and from Greco-Roman art.

The Western Satraps

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The Western Satraps were a dynasty of rulers who governed parts of southern Pakistan and northwestern India from around the 1st century CE to the 4th century CE. The Western Satraps were originally part of the larger Parthian Empire and established their own rule in the region after the decline of the Indo-Parthians. Their reign is marked by a continuation of trade and cultural exchanges that had been established by their predecessors. They maintained and expanded trade routes, particularly those that connected the subcontinent with the Persian Gulf and Central Asia, which helped boost the regional economy.

The Western Satraps are also known for their contributions to the art and culture of the region. Their coinage often features both Indo-Greek and South asian designs, reflecting a blend of cultural influences. Their state, or at least part of it, was called "Ariaca" according to the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.[26][27] Altogether, there were 27 independent Western Satrap rulers during a period of about 350 years.

The Kushans

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See the main article: Kushan Empire
Kushan portraits
Head of a Yuezhi prince (Khalchayan palace)[28]
The first king to call himself "Kushan" on his coinage: Heraios (AD 1–30)
Kushan devotee (2nd century AD). Metropolitan Museum of Art (detail)
Portrait of Kushan emperor Vima Kadphises, AD 100-127

The Kushan Empire (c. 1st–3rd centuries) emerged as a dominant power in Pakistan during the early 1st century CE. The Kushans succeeded the Indo-Scythians and Indo-Parthians, establishing a vast empire that extended from Central Asia into the Indian subcontinent. The empire was founded by Kujula Kadphises, who united various nomadic tribes and expanded their territory through military conquests and strategic alliances.

Under the Kushans, the region saw significant economic and cultural development. The Kushans controlled key trade routes, including those that linked the subcontinent with Central Asia and the Roman Empire. This control facilitated the exchange of goods, ideas, and culture. The Kushan rulers were known for their support of Buddhism, and their reign saw the flourishing of Gandharan art, which blended Greek and Buddhist styles.[29]

The Kushan Empire was marked by a diverse and cosmopolitan culture due to the interactions between various ethnic and cultural groups within its vast territories. The influence of Kushan rulers extended across the region, leaving a lasting impact on the art, culture, and trade networks of ancient Pakistan. However, the empire began to decline in the late 3rd century CE, eventually giving way to the rise of the Gupta Empire and other regional powers.[30]

The Kushans were great patron of Buddhism; however, as Kushans expanded into Gandhara and gained more influence the deities of their later coinage came to reflect syncretism of Hellenic and Buddhist influences.[31][32]

The Little Kushans

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The Little Kushans, or the Lesser Kushans, were a group of smaller Kushan states that emerged in the wake of the decline of the larger Kushan Empire in Pakistan. These smaller states continued to exert influence in the region but were less significant in scale compared to their predecessors. They maintained some aspects of Kushan culture and administration but were eventually absorbed by other emerging powers in the region.

The Indo-Sasanians

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The Sasanian provinces of Sakastan, Paradan, Turan, Makuran and Hind in the early Sasanian era in Pakistan, and location map of the Sasanian coinage of Sindh, circa 400-425 CE.[33]

The Indo-Sassanians established their presence in the Indus Valley, Pakistan from around the 3rd to the 7th century CE. They were part of the Sassanian Empire, which was based in Persia (modern-day Iran). Their influence in the region was a result of both military conquest and diplomatic efforts, following the decline of the Kushan Empire.

Gold coins of Sasanian Empire ruler Shapur III (r. 383-388), minted in Sindh, Pakistan. Obverse: Portrait of Shapur III, Brahmi script character Śrī ("Lord") in front of the King. Degraded Pahlavi legend around. Reverse: Fire altar with attendants.[34]

Under the Indo-Sassanians, the region experienced a period of political and economic change. The Sassanians sought to extend their control over the trade routes that connected the subcontinent with the Persian Gulf and Central Asia. This helped facilitate trade and cultural exchanges between these regions. The Indo-Sassanians also played a role in the spread of Zoroastrianism, which was the dominant religion of the Sassanian Empire, although Buddhism and local Hindu practices continued to be prevalent in the eastern parts of region.

The Indo-Sassanians are noted for their contributions to the architecture and coinage of the region. Their coins often featured Sassanian designs and inscriptions, which reflect their influence on local art and currency. However, their rule was relatively short-lived compared to other powers in the region. By the 7th century CE, the rise of the Islamic Umayyad Caliphate and other regional forces led to the decline of Indo-Sassanian influence, marking the end of their control in the region.

The Hephthalite empire

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The Hephthalite Empire, also known as the White Huns, was a significant power in the northwestern subcontinent, modern Pakistan, during the 5th and 6th centuries CE. Originating from Central Asia, the Hephthalites expanded their territory into the region after the decline of the Kushan Empire and the weakening of the Sassanian influence. They established their rule in Gandhara and parts of the Punjab province.

Their presence also led to the introduction of new artistic influences, seen in the blend of Central Asian and local styles. However, their empire eventually weakened due to internal conflicts and external pressures, leading to their decline and the rise of new powers in the region.

The Rai dynasty

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Coinage of the Rai Dynasty of Sindh. Ranadityasatya; Circa 524 to mid 6th century CE Crowned bust right; sun-wheel symbol to right Fire altar; ranadityasatya in Brahmi around.

The Rai Dynasty ruled over Sindh, in southern Pakistan, from the early 7th century CE to the early 8th century CE. This dynasty emerged after the decline of the Hephthalites and was known for its local governance and resistance against external influences. The Rai rulers established their capital in the city of Aror, which was an important center of administration and culture during their reign.

Under the Rai Dynasty, Sindh experienced a period of relative stability and prosperity. The dynasty maintained control over the region's trade routes and fostered local culture and economy. Their rule is noted for its efforts to preserve local traditions and manage regional affairs independently. However, their dominance was challenged by the expanding Umayyad Caliphate.

The Rai Dynasty's rule came to an end in the early 8th century CE when the Umayyad Caliphate, led by Muhammad bin Qasim, successfully conquered Sindh. This conquest marked the beginning of Islamic rule in the region and the decline of the Rai Dynasty's influence. Despite their fall, the Rai rulers left a lasting impact on the history and culture of Sindh through their contributions to regional governance and local heritage.

The Karkotas

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South Asia circa 700 CE.[35]

The Karkota Empire was established around 625 CE. During the eighth century they consolidated their rule over Kashmir.[36] The most illustrious ruler of the dynasty was Lalitaditya Muktapida. According to Kalhana's Rajatarangini, he defeated the Tibetans and Yashovarman of Kanyakubja, and subsequently conquered eastern kingdoms of Magadha, Kamarupa, Gauda, and Kaḷinga. Kalhana also states that he extended his influence of Malwa and Gujarat and defeated Arabs at Sindh.[37][38] According to historians, Kalhana highly exaggerated the conquests of Lalitaditya.[39][40]

The Kabul Shahis

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The Kabul Shahi dynasties ruled portions of the Kabul valley and Gandhara from the decline of the Kushan Empire in the 3rd century to the early 9th century.[41] The kingdom was known as the Kabul Shahan or Ratbelshahan from 565 CE-670 CE, when the capitals were located in Kapisa and Kabul, and later Udabhandapura, also known as Hund,[42] for its new capital in Pakistan. In ancient time, the title Shahi appears to be a quite popular royal title in the northwestern areas of the subcontinent. Variants were used much more priorly in the Near East,[43] but as well later on by the Sakas, Kushans Hunas, Bactrians, by the rulers of Kapisa/Kabul and Gilgit.[44] In Persian form, the title appears as Kshathiya, Kshathiya Kshathiyanam, Shao of the Kushanas and the Ssaha of Mihirakula (Huna chief).[45] The Kushanas are stated to have adopted the title Shah-in-shahi ("Shaonano shao") in imitation of Achaemenid practice.[46] The Shahis are generally split up into two eras—the Buddhist Shahis and the Hindu Shahis, with the change-over thought to have occurred sometime around 870 CE.

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References

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Citations

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  1. ↑ Imam, Amna; Dar, Eazaz A. (2013-12-14). Democracy and Public Administration in Pakistan. CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-4665-1156-9. ... the classical period of its history during the Persian, Greek, Indo-Greek, Indo-Scythian, Indo-Parthian, Kushan, and Hun eras when the territories of present Pakistan...
  2. ↑ Ahmed, Mukhtar (2014-10-25). Ancient Pakistan - An Archaeological History: Volume V: The End of the Harappan Civilization, and the Aftermath. Amazon. ISBN 978-1-4997-0982-7.
  3. ↑ Romila Thapar, A History of India (1990).
  4. ↑ Qureshi, Ishtiaq Husain (1967). A Short History of Pakistan: Pre-Muslim period, by A. H. Dani. University of Karachi.
  5. ↑ Stein, B. (27 April 2010), Arnold, D. (ed.), A History of India (2nd ed.), Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, p. 105, ISBN 978-1-4051-9509-6
  6. ↑ Jackson, Peter (2003-10-16). The Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-54329-3.
  7. ↑ Michaels, Axel (2004), Hinduism. Past and present, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, p. 32, ISBN 0691089523
  8. ↑ Richards, John F. (1993). The Mughal Empire. The New Cambridge History of India. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-25119-8.
  9. ↑ "The World Economy (GDP): Historical Statistics by Professor Angus Maddison" (PDF). World Economy. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 July 2013. Retrieved 21 May 2013.
  10. ↑ Maddison, Angus (2006). The World Economy – Volume 1: A Millennial Perspective and Volume 2: Historical Statistics. OECD Publishing by Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. p. 656. ISBN 9789264022621. Archived from the original on 15 October 2014. Retrieved 3 January 2017.
  11. ↑ Parasher, Aloka (1979). "The Designation Mleccha for Foreigners in Early India". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 40: 109–120. ISSN 2249-1937. Mlecchas as a reference group in early India included all outsiders who did not conform to the values and ideas and consequently to the norms of the society accepted by the elite groups.
  12. ↑ Allon, Mark; Salomon, Richard (2010). "New Evidence for Mahayana in Early Gandhāra". The Eastern Buddhist. 41 (1): 1–22. ISSN 0012-8708.
  13. ↑ Samad, Rafi U. (2011). The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Algora Publishing. ISBN 978-0-87586-859-2.
  14. ↑ Mortimer Wheeler Flames over Persepolis (London, 1968). Pp. 112 ff. It is unclear whether the Hellenistic street plan found by John Marshall's excavations dates from the Indo-Greeks or from the Kushans, who would have encountered it in Bactria; Tarn (1951, pp. 137, 179) ascribes the initial move of Taxila to the hill of Sirkap to Demetrius I, but sees this as "not a Greek city but an Indian one"; not a polis or with a Hippodamian plan.
  15. ↑ "Menander had his capital in Sagala" Bopearachchi, "Monnaies", p.83. McEvilley supports Tarn on both points, citing Woodcock: "Menander was a Bactrian Greek king of the Euthydemid dynasty. His capital (was) at Sagala (Sialkot) in the Punjab, "in the country of the Yonakas (Greeks)"." McEvilley, p.377. However, "Even if Sagala proves to be Sialkot, it does not seem to be Menander's capital for the Milindapanha states that Menander came down to Sagala to meet Nagasena, just as the Ganges flows to the sea."
  16. ↑ "11.34". Archived from the original on 20 April 2008. Retrieved 20 February 2021.
  17. ↑ "Polybius 11.34". Archived from the original on 20 April 2008. Retrieved 20 February 2021.
  18. ↑ Tarn, W. W. (1902). "Notes on Hellenism in Bactria and India". The Journal of Hellenic Studies. 22: 268–293. doi:10.2307/623931. ISSN 0075-4269.
  19. ↑ "A vast hoard of coins, with a mixture of Greek profiles and Indian symbols, along with interesting sculptures and some monumental remains from Taxila, Sirkap and Sirsukh, point to a rich fusion of Indian and Hellenistic influences", India, the Ancient Past, Burjor Avari, p.130
  20. ↑ "When the Greeks of Bactria and India lost their kingdom they were not all killed, nor did they return to Greece. They merged with the people of the area and worked for the new masters; contributing considerably to the culture and civilization in southern and central Asia." Narain, "The Indo-Greeks" 2003, p. 278.
  21. ↑ Cunningham (1888), p. 33.
  22. ↑ Latif (1984), p. 56.
  23. ↑ Photographic reference here Archived 10 March 2007 at the Wayback Machine.
  24. ↑ Quintanilla, Sonya Rhie (2007). History of Early Stone Sculpture at Mathura, ca. 150 BCE - 100 CE. BRILL. p. 226. ISBN 978-90-474-1930-3.
  25. ↑ Dated 25-50 CE in Quintanilla, Sonya Rhie (2007). History of Early Stone Sculpture at Mathura: Ca. 150 BCE - 100 CE. BRILL. p. Fig. 288. ISBN 9789004155374.
  26. ↑ Kharapallana and Vanaspara are known from an inscription discovered in Sarnath, and dated to the 3rd year of Kanishka, in which they were paying allegiance to the Kushanas. Source: "A Catalogue of the Indian Coins in the British Museum. Andhras etc..." Rapson, p ciii
  27. ↑ Ptolemy, Geographia, Chap 7
  28. ↑ KHALCHAYAN – Encyclopaedia Iranica. Figure 1.
  29. ↑ Hill (2009), pp. 29, 31.
  30. ↑ Hill (2004)
  31. ↑ Grégoire Frumkin (1970). Archaeology in Soviet Central Asia. Brill Archive. pp. 51–. GGKEY:4NPLATFACBB.
  32. ↑ Rafi U. Samad (2011). The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Algora Publishing. pp. 93–. ISBN 978-0-87586-859-2.
  33. ↑ Senior, R.C. (1991). "The Coinage of Sind from 250 AD up to the Arab Conquest" (PDF). Oriental Numismatic Society. 129 (June–July 1991): 3–4.
  34. ↑ Senior, R.C. (2012). "Some unpublished ancient coins" (PDF). Oriental Numismatic Society Newsletter. 170 (Winter): 17.
  35. ↑ Schwartzberg, Joseph E. (1978). A Historical atlas of South Asia. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 146, map XIV.2 (f). ISBN 0226742210. Archived from the original on 24 February 2021. Retrieved 3 April 2022.
  36. ↑ Singh 2008, p. 571.
  37. ↑ Majumdar 1977, pp. 260–3.
  38. ↑ Wink 1991, pp. 72–74.
  39. ↑ Chadurah 1991, p. 45.
  40. ↑ Hasan 1959, pp. 54.
  41. ↑ Shahi Family. Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 16 October 2006 [1].
  42. ↑ Sehrai, Fidaullah (1979). Hund: The Forgotten City of Gandhara, p. 2. Peshawar Museum Publications New Series, Peshawar.
  43. ↑ Darius used titles like "Kshayathiya, Kshayathiya Kshayathiyanam" etc.
  44. ↑ The Shahi Afghanistan and Punjab, 1973, pp 1, 45-46, 48, 80, Dr D. B. Pandey; The Úakas in India and Their Impact on Indian Life and Culture, 1976, p 80, Vishwa Mitra Mohan - Indo-Scythians; Country, Culture and Political life in early and medieval India, 2004, p 34, Daud Ali.
  45. ↑ Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1954, pp 112 ff; The Shahis of Afghanistan and Punjab, 1973, p 46, Dr D. B. Pandey; The Úakas in India and Their Impact on Indian Life and Culture, 1976, p 80, Vishwa Mitra Mohan - Indo-Scythians.
  46. ↑ India, A History, 2001, p 203, John Keay.

Sources

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