فزڪس جي تاريخ
فزڪس سائنس جي هڪ شاخ آهي جنهن جي مطالعي جا بنيادي مقصد مادو ۽ توانائي آهن. فزڪس جون دريافتون سڄي قدرتي سائنس ۽ ٽيڪنالاجي ۾ ايپليڪيشنون ڳولين ٿيون. تاريخي طور تي، فزڪس 17هين صدي جي سائنسي انقلاب مان اڀري، 19هين صدي عيسويء ۾ تيزيء سان ترقي ڪئي، پوء 20هين صدي عيسويء ۾ دريافتن جي هڪ سلسلي سان تبديل ٿي وئي. اڄ جي فزڪس کي ڪلاسيڪل فزڪس ۽ جديد فزڪس ۾ ورهائي سگهجي ٿو.
فزڪس جي تاريخ جي آئوٽ لائن ذريعي مخصوص موضوعن تي ڪيترائي تفصيلي مضمون موجود آهن.
قديم تاريخ
[سنواريو]Elements of what became physics were drawn primarily from the fields of astronomy, optics, and mechanics, which were methodologically united through the study of geometry. These mathematical disciplines began in antiquity with the Babylonians and with Hellenistic writers such as Archimedes and Ptolemy. Ancient philosophy, meanwhile, included what was called "Physics".
Greek concept
[سنواريو]The move towards a rational understanding of nature began at least since the Archaic period in Greece (650–480 BCE) with the Pre-Socratic philosophers. The philosopher Thales of Miletus (7th and 6th centuries BCE), dubbed "the Father of Science" for refusing to accept various supernatural, religious or mythological explanations for natural phenomena, proclaimed that every event had a natural cause.[1] Thales also made advancements in 580 BCE by suggesting that water is the basic element, experimenting with the attraction between magnets and rubbed amber and formulating the first recorded cosmologies. Anaximander, developer of a proto-evolutionary theory, disputed Thales' ideas and proposed that rather than water, a substance called apeiron was the building block of all matter. Around 500 BCE, Heraclitus proposed that the only basic law governing the Universe was the principle of change and that nothing remains in the same state indefinitely. Along with his contemporary Parmenides were among the first scholars in ancient physics to contemplate on the role of time in the universe, a key concept that is still an issue in modern physics.
(384–322 BCE)
During the classical period in Greece (6th, 5th and 4th centuries BCE) and in Hellenistic times, natural philosophy slowly developed into an exciting and contentious field of study. Aristotle (يوناني ٻولي: Ἀριστοτέλης, Aristotélēs) (384–322 BCE), a student of Plato, promoted the concept that observation of physical phenomena could ultimately lead to the discovery of the natural laws governing them.[حوالو گهربل] Aristotle's writings cover physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, linguistics, politics, government, ethics, biology and zoology. He wrote the first work which refers to that line of study as "Physics" – in the 4th century BCE, Aristotle founded the system known as Aristotelian physics. He attempted to explain ideas such as motion (and gravity) with the theory of four elements. Aristotle believed that all matter was made up of aether, or some combination of four elements: earth, water, air, and fire. According to Aristotle, these four terrestrial elements are capable of inter-transformation and move toward their natural place, so a stone falls downward toward the center of the cosmos, but flames rise upward toward the circumference. Eventually, Aristotelian physics became enormously popular for many centuries in Europe, informing the scientific and scholastic developments of the Middle Ages. It remained the mainstream scientific paradigm in Europe until the time of Galileo Galilei and Isaac Newton.
Early in Classical Greece, knowledge that the Earth is spherical ("round") was common. Around 240 BCE, as the result of a seminal experiment, Eratosthenes (276–194 BCE) accurately estimated its circumference. In contrast to Aristotle's geocentric views, Aristarchus of Samos (يوناني ٻولي: Ἀρίσταρχος; ت. 310 – c. 230 BCE) presented an explicit argument for a heliocentric model of the Solar System, i.e. for placing the Sun, not the Earth, at its centre. Seleucus of Seleucia, a follower of Aristarchus' heliocentric theory, stated that the Earth rotated around its own axis, which, in turn, revolved around the Sun. Though the arguments he used were lost, Plutarch stated that Seleucus was the first to prove the heliocentric system through reasoning.
In the 3rd century BCE, the Greek mathematician Archimedes of Syracuse (يوناني ٻولي: Ἀρχιμήδης (287–212 BCE) – generally considered to be the greatest mathematician of antiquity and one of the greatest of all time – laid the foundations of hydrostatics, statics and calculated the underlying mathematics of the lever. A leading scientist of classical antiquity, Archimedes also developed elaborate systems of pulleys to move large objects with a minimum of effort. The Archimedes' screw underpins modern hydroengineering, and his machines of war helped to hold back the armies of Rome in the First Punic War. Archimedes even tore apart the arguments of Aristotle and his metaphysics, pointing out that it was impossible to separate mathematics and nature and proved it by converting mathematical theories into practical inventions. Furthermore, in his work On Floating Bodies, around 250 BCE, Archimedes developed the law of buoyancy, also known as Archimedes' principle. In mathematics, Archimedes used the method of exhaustion to calculate the area under the arc of a parabola with the summation of an infinite series, and gave a remarkably accurate approximation of pi. He also defined the spiral bearing his name, formulae for the volumes of surfaces of revolution and an ingenious system for expressing very large numbers. He also developed the principles of equilibrium states and centers of gravity, ideas that would influence future scholars like Galileo, and Newton.
Hipparchus (190–120 BCE), focusing on astronomy and mathematics, used sophisticated geometrical techniques to map the motion of the stars and planets, even predicting the times that Solar eclipses would happen. He added calculations of the distance of the Sun and Moon from the Earth, based upon his improvements to the observational instruments used at that time. Another of the early physicists was Ptolemy (90–168 CE), one of the leading minds during the time of the Roman Empire. Ptolemy was the author of several scientific treatises, at least three of which were of continuing importance to later Islamic and European science. The first is the astronomical treatise now known as the Almagest (in Greek, Ἡ Μεγάλη Σύνταξις, "The Great Treatise", originally Μαθηματικὴ Σύνταξις, "Mathematical Treatise"). The second is the Geography, which is a thorough discussion of the geographic knowledge of the Greco-Roman world.
Much of the accumulated knowledge of the ancient world was lost. Even of the works of the many respectable thinkers, few fragments survived. Although he wrote at least fourteen books, almost nothing of Hipparchus' direct work survived. Of the 150 reputed Aristotelian works, only 30 exist, and some of those are "little more than lecture notes".سانچو:Fix/category[ڪنهن چيو؟]
India and China
[سنواريو]
Important physical and mathematical traditions also existed in ancient Chinese and Indian sciences.
In Indian philosophy, Maharishi Kanada was the first to systematically develop a theory of atomism around 200 BCE[3] though some authors have allotted him an earlier era in the 6th century BCE.[4][5] It was further elaborated by the Buddhist atomists Dharmakirti and Dignāga during the 1st millennium CE.[6] Pakudha Kaccayana, a 6th-century BCE Indian philosopher and contemporary of Gautama Buddha, had also propounded ideas about the atomic constitution of the material world. These philosophers believed that other elements (except ether) were physically palpable and hence comprised minuscule particles of matter. The last minuscule particle of matter that could not be subdivided further was termed Parmanu. These philosophers considered the atom to be indestructible and hence eternal. The Buddhists thought atoms to be minute objects unable to be seen to the naked eye that come into being and vanish in an instant. The Vaisheshika school of philosophers believed that an atom was a mere point in space. It was also first to depict relations between motion and force applied. Indian theories about the atom are greatly abstract and enmeshed in philosophy as they were based on logic and not on personal experience or experimentation. In Indian astronomy, Aryabhata's Aryabhatiya (499 CE) proposed the Earth's rotation, while Nilakantha Somayaji (1444–1544) of the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics proposed a semi-heliocentric model resembling the Tychonic system.
The study of magnetism in Ancient China dates back to the 4th century BCE. (in the Book of the Devil Valley Master),[7] A main contributor to this field was Shen Kuo (1031–1095), a polymath and statesman who was the first to describe the magnetic-needle compass used for navigation, as well as establishing the concept of true north. In optics, Shen Kuo independently developed a camera obscura.[8]
Islamic world
[سنواريو]- اصل مضمون/مضمونن جي لاءِ ڏسو Physics in the medieval Islamic world ۽ Science in the medieval Islamic world
In the 7th to 15th centuries, scientific progress occurred in the Muslim world. Many classic works in Indian, Assyrian, Sassanian (Persian) and Greek, including the works of Aristotle, were translated into Arabic.[9] Important contributions were made by Ibn al-Haytham (965–1040), an Arab[10] or Persian[11] scientist, considered to be a founder of modern optics. Ptolemy and Aristotle theorised that light either shone from the eye to illuminate objects or that "forms" emanated from objects themselves, whereas al-Haytham (known by the Latin name "Alhazen") suggested that light travels to the eye in rays from different points on an object. The works of Ibn al-Haytham and al-Biruni (973–1050), a Persian scientist, eventually passed on to Western Europe where they were studied by scholars such as Roger Bacon and Vitello.[12]
Ibn al-Haytham used controlled experiments in his work on optics, although to what extent it differed from Ptolemy is up to debate.[13][14] Arabic mechanics like Bīrūnī and Al-Khazini developed sophisticated "science of weight", carrying out measurements of specific weights and volumes[15]
Ibn Sīnā (980–1037), known as "Avicenna", was a polymath from Bukhara (in present-day Uzbekistan) responsible for important contributions to physics, optics, philosophy and medicine. He published his theory of motion in Book of Healing (1020), where he argued that an impetus is imparted to a projectile by the thrower. He viewed it as persistent, requiring external forces such as air resistance to dissipate it.[16][17][18] Ibn Sina made a distinction between 'force' and 'inclination' (called "mayl"), and argued that an object gained mayl when the object is in opposition to its natural motion. He concluded that continuation of motion is attributed to the inclination that is transferred to the object, and that object will be in motion until the mayl is spent. This conception of motion is consistent with Newton's first law of motion, inertia, which states that an object in motion will stay in motion unless it is acted on by an external force.[16] This idea which dissented from the Aristotelian view was later described as "impetus" by John Buridan, who was likely influenced by Ibn Sina's Book of Healing.[19]
Hibat Allah Abu'l-Barakat al-Baghdaadi (ت. 1080 – c. 1165) adopted and modified Ibn Sina's theory on projectile motion. In his Kitab al-Mu'tabar, Abu'l-Barakat stated that the mover imparts a violent inclination (mayl qasri) on the moved and that this diminishes as the moving object distances itself from the mover.[20] He also proposed an explanation of the acceleration of falling bodies by the accumulation of successive increments of power with successive increments of velocity.[21] According to Shlomo Pines, al-Baghdaadi's theory of motion was "the oldest negation of Aristotle's fundamental dynamic law [namely, that a constant force produces a uniform motion], [and is thus an] anticipation in a vague fashion of the fundamental law of classical mechanics [namely, that a force applied continuously produces acceleration]."[22] Jean Buridan and Albert of Saxony later referred to Abu'l-Barakat in explaining that the acceleration of a falling body is a result of its increasing impetus.[20]
Ibn Bajjah (ت. 1085 – 1138), known as "Avempace" in Europe, proposed that for every force there is always a reaction force. Ibn Bajjah was a critic of Ptolemy and he worked on creating a new theory of velocity to replace the one theorized by Aristotle. Two future philosophers supported the theories Avempace created, known as Avempacean dynamics. These philosophers were Thomas Aquinas, a Catholic priest, and John Duns Scotus.[23] Galileo went on to adopt Avempace's formula "that the velocity of a given object is the difference of the motive power of that object and the resistance of the medium of motion".[23]
Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (1201–1274), a Persian astronomer and mathematician who died in Baghdad, introduced the Tusi couple. Copernicus later drew heavily on the work of al-Din al-Tusi and his students, but without acknowledgment.[24]
Medieval Europe
[سنواريو]Awareness of ancient works re-entered the West through translations from Arabic to Latin. Their re-introduction, combined with Judeo-Islamic theological commentaries, had a great influence on Medieval philosophers such as Thomas Aquinas. Scholastic European scholars, who sought to reconcile the philosophy of the ancient classical philosophers with Christian theology, proclaimed Aristotle the greatest thinker of the ancient world. In cases where they did not directly contradict the Bible, Aristotelian physics became the foundation for the physical explanations of the European Churches. Quantification became a core element of medieval physics.[25]
Based on Aristotelian physics, Scholastic physics described things as moving according to their essential nature. Celestial objects were described as moving in circles, because perfect circular motion was considered an innate property of objects that existed in the uncorrupted realm of the celestial spheres. The theory of impetus, the ancestor to the concepts of inertia and momentum, was developed along similar lines by medieval philosophers such as John Philoponus and Jean Buridan. Motions below the lunar sphere were seen as imperfect, and thus could not be expected to exhibit consistent motion. More idealized motion in the "sublunary" realm could only be achieved through artifice, and prior to the 17th century, many did not view artificial experiments as a valid means of learning about the natural world. Physical explanations in the sublunary realm revolved around tendencies. Stones contained the element earth, and earthly objects tended to move in a straight line toward the centre of the earth (and the universe in the Aristotelian geocentric view) unless otherwise prevented from doing so.[26]
سائنسي انقلاب
[سنواريو]18هين صدي جي ترقي
[سنواريو]19هين صدي== 20هين صدي: جديد فزڪس جو جنم==
جديد طبيعيات
[سنواريو]طبيعيات جي تاريخ تي مضمون
[سنواريو]پڻ ڏسو
[سنواريو]- مشهور طبيعيات دان جي فهرست
- فزڪس ڪانفرنس جي فهرست
- فزڪس ۾ نوبل انعام حاصل ڪندڙن جي فهرست
- فزڪس ۾ اهم اشاعتن جي فهرست
- فزڪس ۾ تجربن جي فهرست
خارجي لنڪس
[سنواريو]حوالا
[سنواريو]- ↑ "This shift from ecclesiastical reasoning to scientific reasoning marked the beginning of scientific methodology." Singer, C., A Short History of Science to the 19th Century, Streeter Press, 2008, p. 35.
- ↑ Miyajima, Kazuhiko, "Projection Methods in Chinese, Korean and Japanese Star Maps", Highlights of Astronomy (2): 712–715, doi:10.1017/s1539299600018554 Unknown parameter
|doi-access=ignored (مدد) - ↑ Oliver Leaman, Key Concepts in Eastern Philosophy. Routledge, 1999, page 269.
- ↑ Chattopadhyaya 1986, pp. 169–70
- ↑ Choudhury 2006, p. 202
- ↑ (Stcherbatsky 1962 (1930). Vol. 1. P. 19)
- ↑ Li Shu-hua, "Origine de la Boussole 11. Aimant et Boussole", Isis, Vol. 45, No. 2. (Jul., 1954), p.175
- ↑ Joseph Needham, Volume 4, Part 1, 98.
- ↑ Robinson, Francis, ed (1996). The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Islamic World. Cambridge University Press. pp. 228–229.
- ↑ Esposito (2000)، The Oxford History of Islam، Oxford University Press، P. 192. : “Ibn al-Haytham (d. 1039), known in the West as Alhazan, was a leading Arab mathematician, astronomer, and physicist. His optical compendium, Kitab al-Manazir, is the greatest medieval work on optics”
- ↑ (Child, Shuter & Taylor 1992, p. 70), (Dessel, Nehrich & Voran 1973, p. 164), Understanding History by John Child, Paul Shuter, David Taylor - Page 70. "Alhazen, a Persian scientist, showed that the eye saw light from other objects. This started optics, the science of light. The Arabs also studied astronomy, the study of the stars. "
- ↑ سانچو:Harvtxt
- ↑ Smith, Mark (2015). From Sight to Light: The Passage from Ancient to Modern Optics. The University of Chicago Press. pp. 225. Bibcode: 2014fslp.book.....S. "The same holds for Alhacen’s methodology. It may look modern because of its strong empirical bias and reliance on controlled experiments, but Ptolemy’s approach was no less empirical, and it, too, was based on controlled experiments. In addition, Alhacen’s two most modern-looking experiments are based on physically unobtainable precision in equipment design and observation, so we are left to doubt that he actually carried them out as described— except, of course, in his mind. And these experiments were not new in conception. They were clearly based on equivalent ones in Ptolemy’s Optics, although Alhacen had to reformulate them in significant and creative ways to accommodate the testing of light rays rather than visual rays."
- ↑ Darrigol, Olivier (2012). A History of Optics from Greek Antiquity to the Nineteenth Century. Oxford University Press. pp. 20.
- ↑ Lindberg, David; Shank, Michael (2013). The Cambridge History of Science, Volume 2, Medieval Science. pp. 984–1108.
- ↑ 16.0 16.1 Espinoza, Fernando (2005). "An analysis of the historical development of ideas about motion and its implications for teaching". Physics Education 40 (2): 141. doi:. Bibcode: 2005PhyEd..40..139E.
- ↑ Seyyed Hossein Nasr & Mehdi Amin Razavi (1996). The Islamic intellectual tradition in Persia. Routledge. p. 72. ISBN 978-0-7007-0314-2.
- ↑ Aydin Sayili (1987). "Ibn Sīnā and Buridan on the Motion of the Projectile". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 500 (1): 477–482. doi:. Bibcode: 1987NYASA.500..477S.
- ↑ Sayili, Aydin. "Ibn Sina and Buridan on the Motion the Projectile". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences vol. 500(1). p.477-482.
- ↑ 20.0 20.1 Gutman, Oliver (2003). Pseudo-Avicenna, Liber Celi Et Mundi: A Critical Edition. Brill Publishers. p. 193. ISBN 90-04-13228-7.
- ↑ Crombie, Alistair Cameron, Augustine to Galileo 2, p. 67.
- ↑ Pines, Shlomo. "Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī, Hibat Allah". Dictionary of Scientific Biography. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. صفحا. 26–28. ISBN 0-684-10114-9.
(cf. Abel B. Franco (October 2003). "Avempace, Projectile Motion, and Impetus Theory", Journal of the History of Ideas 64 (4), p. 521-546 [528].) - ↑ 23.0 23.1 Gracia, Jorge J. E., "Philosophy in the Middle Ages: An Introduction", A Companion to Philosophy in the Middle Ages, Blackwell Publishing Ltd, صفحا. 1–11, ISBN 9780470996669, doi:10.1002/9780470996669.ch1
- ↑ "Top 10 ancient Arabic scientists". Cosmos magazine. حاصل ڪيل 2013-04-20.
- ↑ Crombie, A. C. (1961). "Quantification in Medieval Physics". Isis 52 (2): 143–160. doi:. ISSN 0021-1753. https://www.jstor.org/stable/228677.
- ↑ Lindberg, David C. (1992). The Beginnings of Western Science. University of Chicago Press. doi:. ISBN 978-0-226-48231-6.
حوالي جي چڪ: "note" نالي جي حوالن جي لاءِ ٽيگ <ref> آهن، پر لاڳاپيل ٽيگ <references group="note"/> نہ مليو