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| name = Chinese ceramics | title = Chinese ceramics |listclass = hlist | image = | imageleft = |group1= Ancient pottery | list1 =

|group2= Earthenwares, stonewares and others | list2 =

|group3= Porcelain | list3 =

|group4= Decoration | list4 =

|group6= Kilns, shapes | list6 =

}}



==

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Quing-vase. Vasen im Famille-Rose-Stil der Qing-Dynastie

"Song-monokromenes epokedannende verdi skyldes pottemakernes uovertrufne formsans og koloristiske beherskelse;"
"Under Song-dynastiet (960–1278) ble de berømte Ting-arbeidene laget."
" Kvalitativt høyest når de beste produkter fra periodene Xuande (1426–1435), Jiajing (1522–1566) og Wanli (1573–1619)"; Denne perioden varte fra 1644 til 1912. Dette tidsrommets største kulturelle innsats karakteriseres i vesentlig grad ved den proteksjon de gav den keramiske industri, som selv om den ikke gav noe egentlig nytt, neppe har feiret større triumfer enn under Kangxi (1662–1722). Også i periodene Yongzheng (1723–1735) og Qianlong (1736–1796) ble det laget gode ting, om de enn ikke kan måle seg med Kangxi eller «det sene Ming-porselens»Denne perioden varte fra 1644 til 1912. Dette tidsrommets største kulturelle innsats karakteriseres i vesentlig grad ved den proteksjon de gav den keramiske industri, som selv om den ikke gav noe egentlig nytt, neppe har feiret større triumfer enn under Kangxi (1662–1722). Også i periodene Yongzheng (1723–1735) og Qianlong (1736–1796) ble det laget gode ting, om de enn ikke kan måle seg med Kangxi eller «det sene Ming-porselens»"Denne perioden varte fra 1644 til 1912. Dette tidsrommets største kulturelle innsats karakteriseres i vesentlig grad ved den proteksjon de gav den keramiske industri, som selv om den ikke gav noe egentlig nytt, neppe har feiret større triumfer enn under Kangxi (1662–1722). Også i periodene Yongzheng (1723–1735) og Qianlong (1736–1796) ble det laget gode ting, om de enn ikke kan måle seg med Kangxi eller «det sene Ming-porselens» ..."
(Byline,) " De mest kjente porselensprodukter kommer fra Jindezhen. Særlig kjente er de blå og hvite porselensvarene som ble laget fra 1200-tallet av. Bildet viser en vase fra mongoldynastiet Yuan."
[2]

"GHiang-shi",sjå [1], 20 000 år tilbake/bakover
Yaozhou ware celadon bowl, Song dynasty, 10th-11th century.
A qingbai porcelain vase, bowl, and model of a granary with transparent blue-toned glaze, from the period of the Song Dynasty (960–1279 AD)
A black pottery cooking cauldron from the Hemudu culture (c. 5000 – c. 3000 BC)
Xianrendong cave pottery fragments, radiocarbon dated to circa 20,000 BP. China.[1][2]
MAJ---

Pottery dating from 20,000 years ago was found at the Xianrendong Cave site in Jiangxi province,[3][4] making it among the earliest pottery yet found. Another reported find is from 17,000–18,000 years ago in the Yuchanyan Cave in southern China.[5]

tekst (inkl. skjult tekst), frå artikkelen (på nynorsk)

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Ei krukke frå Jiajing-perioden (1521–1567) til Mingdynastiet
 Chinese ceramics show a continuous development since pre-dynastic times and are one of the most significant forms of Chinese art and ceramics globally. The first pottery was made during the Palaeolithic era. Chinese ceramics range from construction materials such as 

bricks and tiles, to hand-built pottery vessels fired in bonfires or kilns, to the sophisticated Chinese porcelain wares made for the imperial court and for export. Porcelain was a Chinese 

invention and is so identified with China that it is still called "china" in everyday English usage.



Most later Chinese ceramics, even of the finest quality, were made on an industrial scale, thus 

few names of individual potters were recorded. Many of the most important kiln workshops were owned by or reserved for the Emperor, and large quantities of Chinese export porcelain were exported as diplomatic gifts or for trade from an early date, initially to East Asia and the Islamic world, and then 

from around the 16th century to Europe.  Chinese ceramics have had an enormous influence on other ceramic traditions in these areas.



Increasingly over their long history, Chinese ceramics can be classified between those made for the 

imperial court, either to use or distribute, those made for a discriminating Chinese market, and those for 

popular Chinese markets or for export.  Some types of wares were also made only or mainly for special uses such as burial in 

tombs, or for use on altars.


Den tidlegste kinesiske keramikken var leirgods. 

which continued in production for utilitarian uses throughout Chinese history, but was increasingly less used for fine wares. Stoneware, fired at higher temperatures, and naturally impervious to water, was developed very early and continued to be used for fine pottery in many areas at most periods; the tea bowls in Jian ware and Jizhou ware made during the Song dynasty are examples. 

Porcelain, on a Western definition, is "a collective term comprising all ceramic ware that is white and translucent, no matter what ingredients are used to make it or to what use it is put".[6] The 

Chinese tradition recognizes two primary categories of ceramics, 

high-fired [cí 瓷] and low-fired [táo 陶],[7] so doing without stoneware, which in Chinese tradition is mostly grouped with (and translated as) porcelain.  Terms such as "porcellaneous" or "near-porcelain" may be used for stonewares with porcelain-like characteristics.[8]   The Erya defined porcelain [cí 瓷] as "fine, compact pottery" [táo 陶].[9] 

Chinese pottery can also be classified as being either 
northern or southern.  China comprises two separate and geologically different land masses, brought together by continental drift and forming a junction that lies between the Yellow and Yangtze rivers, sometimes known as the Nanshan-Qinling divide. The contrasting geology of the north and south led to differences in the 

raw materials available for making ceramics; in particular the north lacks 

petunse or "porcelain stone", needed for porcelain on the strict definition. Ware-types can be from very widespread kiln-sites in either north or south China, but the two can nearly always be distinguished, and influences across this divide may affect shape and decoration, but will be based on very different clay bodies, with fundamental effects.  The kiln types were also different, and in the 

north the fuel was usually coal, as opposed to 

wood in the south, which often affects the wares. Southern materials have 

high silica, low alumina and high potassium oxide, the reverse of northern materials in each case.  The northern materials are often very 

suitable for stoneware, while in the south there are also areas highly suitable for porcelain.[10]

== Materialar

I hovudsak er kinesisk porselen laga av ei kombinasjon av følgjande materialar, 

 Chinese porcelain is mainly made by a combination of the following materials:

== Technical developments 

In the context of Chinese ceramics, the term porcelain lacks a universally accepted definition (see above). This in turn has led to confusion about when the first Chinese porcelain was made. Claims have been made for the 

late Eastern Han dynasty (100–200 AD), the 

Three Kingdoms period (220–280 AD), the 

Six Dynasties period (220–589 AD), and the Tang dynasty (618–906 AD).

Kiln technology has always been a key factor in the development of Chinese pottery. The Chinese developed effective kilns capable of firing at around 1 000 °C (1 830 °F) before 2000 BC.  These were

updraft kilns, often built below ground.  Two main types of kiln were 

developed by about 200 AD and remained in use until modern times.  These are the 

dragon kiln of hilly southern China, usually fuelled by wood, long and thin and running up a slope, and the 

horseshoe-shaped mantou kiln of the north Chinese plains, smaller and more compact.  Both could reliably produce the temperatures of 

up to 1 300 °C (2 370 °F) or more needed for porcelain.  In the 

late Ming, the egg-shaped kiln or zhenyao was developed at Jingdezhen, but mainly used there. This was something of a compromise between the other types, and offered locations in the firing chamber with a range of firing conditions.[13]

Galleri

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A Ming porcelain jar with a scene of cavalrymen fighting, from the reign of the Jiajing Emperor (1522–1566), Guimet Museum, Paris.

Historie

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Måla krukke frå Majiayao-kulturen, seint i yngre steinalder (3300–2200 fvt.)

Keramikk som er datert til om lag 20 000 år siden vart funne i utgravingsstaden Xianrendong-hola i Jiangxi.[14][15] Eit anna funn frå Yuchanyan-hola i Sør-Kina er 17 000–18 000 år gammalt.[16]

På midten og seint i den kinesiske steinalderen (om lag 5000-1500 fvt.) laga dei fleste av dei større kinesiske kulturane varierte store kar, sterkt måla eller pynta med snitt eller innpressa mønster.[17]

− − 

Majiayao pottery, with orange bodies and black paint, is characterised by fine paste textures, 

thin walls, and polished surfaces; the almost complete lack of defects in excavated pots suggests a high level of quality control during production.

[18]

Majiayao-kulturen og andre fasar av Yangshao-kulturen er også kjende frå museum i den vestlege verda. Allereie i Banshan-fasen vart lilla nytta saman med svart i begittingsteknikk.[19] 

The Majiayao and other phases of the Yangshao culture are well-represented in Western museums; by the Banshan phase purple was used in slip-painting alongside black.

[20]

På 4000-talet fvt. vart dreieskiva funnen opp i Kina.[21] Nokre regionar i den vestlege verda hevdar at oppfinninga fann stad hos seg.[22] 

Previously coil-forming was used for large vessels.

[23]

Funn av kar har for det meste vore gjort i graver; nokre gongar inneheld dei leivningar. Frå tida 4100–2600 fvt. i Dawenkou-kulturen dukka formar opp som synast å likne formar frå ritual-bronsen frå Kina. På ritualstaden Niuheliang langt nord fann ein talrike figurinar som førestiller mennesker, nokre av dei i halvparten av verkeleg storleik.[24] 

Finds of vessels are mostly in burials; sometimes they hold the remains. By 4100–2600 BCE in the Dawenkou culture shapes later familiar from Chinese ritual bronzes begin to appear. One exceptional ritual site, Niuheliang in the far north, produced numerous human figurines, some about half life-size.[25]

Han-dynastiet, 206 fvt. – 220

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I følgje nokre kinesiske definisjonar vart det første kinesiske porselenet laga i Zhejiang i det austlege riket til Han-dynastiet. Skår frå arkelogiske funn tydar på at brennomnane i dét området var i bruk med temperaturar mellom 1260 og 1300 °C..[26]

Såkalla «grønn-keramikk» (engelsk, greenware) eller seladon var populært i Kina og i eksport-marknadane 

which became increasingly important during the period.

«Yue-keramikken» vart etterfølgd av «Nordlig seladon», og i sør av Longquan-seladon.

«Kvit-keramikk» og «svart-keramikk» var også viktige, i sær i Tz'u-chou-keramikken og det fannst fleirfarga typar, men dei finare typane av keramikk, for hoffet og literatane, var fortsatt einsfarga. 

relying on glaze effects and shape.  A wide variety of styles evolved in various areas, and those that were successful were imitated in other areas.

Viktige «brennomn-stader» og «steingods-stilar» var

Ru, Jun, «sørleg Song», Guan eller «offisiell keramikk», Jian og Jizhou.

Kvitaktig porselen vart stadig betre, også vidareføringa av «Ding-keramikken» og keramikken som erstatta han, qingbai.

Dynastiane Liao, Xia og Jin vart grunnlagt av ikkje-lesekundige, ofte nomadiske folk som erobra delar av Kina; kunst-tradisjonane deira vart til ein viss grad fletta med kinesiske tradisjonar. 

Pottery production continued under their rule, but their own artistic traditions merged to some extent with the Chinese, producing characteristic new styles.

The fine pottery of all these regions was mainly 

high-fired, with 

some earthenware produced because of its lower cost and more colourful glazes. 

Some of the clay used was what is called kaolinite in the West. In some cases 

stoneware was preferred for its darker colour or better working qualities. Potteries used the local clay, and when that was dark or coarse and they wanted a fine white body, they covered the clay with white 

slip before applying glaze.

«»


SNL

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Store norske leksikon skriv om Song-keramikk, at i hovudsak vart det laga produkter i steingods med einsfarga glasur, som t.d. grønn seladon. Song-tida er den klassiske perioden til steingodset.

(, men det vart også laga porselen;

( Songdynastiet er eit høgdepunkt i den kinesiske keramiske historie. )

( Nye former og glasurer var banebrytende; )

( og har vært viktig for seinere keramisk produksjon );

Steingods og porselen vart laga i elegante former og avanserte glasurar. Føyrande porselen var den lyse blå-grønne Qingbai. Det meste kjente steingodset var seladon

( som vart laga på forskjellige stader i landet, dei dominerande var Longquan og Yaozhou; )

Ding er eit forfina elfenbenskvit porselen som er høgt verdsett. Andre steingodstypar er Jun og Cizhou;

( Song-tida er også kjend for sine )

Teboller, kalla Temmoku, vart svært populære i Japan.[27]

... ... Yuan-dynastiet, 1271–1368

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Det mongolske Yuan-dynastiet 

enforced the 

movement of artists of all sorts around the Mongol Empire, which in ceramics brought a major stylistic and technical influence from the Islamic world in the form of blue and white porcelain, with 

underglaze painting in cobalt. This has been described as the "last great innovation in ceramic technology".

[28] 

Decoration by underglaze painted patterns had long been a feature of Chinese pottery, especially in the popular 

Cizhou ware (mostly using black over slip), but was perhaps regarded as rather vulgar by the court and the literati class, and the finest ceramics were monochrome, using an understated aesthetic with perfect shapes and subtle glaze effects, often over 

shallow decoration carved or moulded into the surface.

[29] 


This was a great contrast to the bright colours and complicated designs developed

under the Yuan, whose organization was mostly based on Islamic art, especially metalwork, although the animal and vegetable motifs remained based on Chinese tradition.

[30] 

These were initially mainly made for export,

[31] 

but became acceptable at court, and to buyers of fine ceramics internally.  Export markets readily accepted the style, which has continued to be produced ever since, both in China and around the world.

Because of this, improvements in water transportation and the re-unification under Mongol rule, pottery production started to concentrate 

near deposits of kaolin, such as Jingdezhen, which gradually became the pre-eminent centre for producing porcelain in a variety of styles, a position it has held ever since.  The scale of production greatly increased, and the scale and organization of the kilns became industrialized, with ownership by commercial syndicates, much division of labour, and other typical features of mass production.

[32] 

Some other types of pottery, especially Longquan celadon and Cizhou ware, continued to flourish.


Ming-dynastiet (1368–1644)

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The Ming dynasty saw an extraordinary period of innovation in ceramic manufacture. Kilns investigated new techniques in design and shapes, showing a predilection for colour and painted design, and an openness to foreign forms.[33] The Yongle Emperor (1402–24) was especially curious about other countries (as evidenced by his support of the eunuch Zheng He's extended exploration of the Indian Ocean), and enjoyed unusual shapes, many inspired by Islamic metalwork.[34][35][36]

Under regjeringstida til kjeisaren Xuande (1426–35) vart ny teknikk funne for nytting av blåfarve til underglasur. Den nye teknikken gjorde at kobolt ikkje rann under brenning.[37] Enamelled decoration (such as the one at left) was perfected under the Chenghua Emperor (1464–87), and greatly prized by later collectors.[38] Indeed, by the late 16th century, Chenghua and Xuande era works – especially wine cups[39] – had grown so much in popularity, that their prices nearly matched genuine antique wares of the Song dynasty or even older. This esteem for relatively recent ceramics excited much scorn on the part of literati scholars (such as Wen Zhenheng, Tu Long, and Gao Lian, who is cited below); these men fancied themselves arbiters of taste and found the painted aesthetic 'vulgar.'[40][41] 

In addition to these decorative innovations, the late Ming dynasty underwent a dramatic shift towards a market economy,[42] exporting porcelain around the world on an unprecedented scale. Thus aside from supplying porcelain for domestic use, the kilns at Jingdezhen became the main production centre for large-scale porcelain exports to Europe starting with the reign of the Wanli Emperor (1572–1620). By this time, kaolin and pottery stone were mixed in about equal proportions. Kaolin produced wares of great strength when added to the paste; it also enhanced the whiteness of the body—a trait that became a much sought after property, especially when form blue-and-white wares grew in popularity. Pottery stone could be fired at a lower temperature (1 250 °C; 2 280 °F) than paste mixed with kaolin, which required 1 350 °C (2 460 °F). These sorts of variations were important to keep in mind because the large southern egg-shaped kiln varied greatly in temperature. Near the firebox it was hottest; near the chimney, at the opposite end of the kiln, it was cooler.


Wucai Goldfish Vase from the Jiajing period (1521–67) of the Ming dynasty

Qing-dynastiet (1644–1911)

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Frå Daoguang-perioden (1821–50). Shanghai Museum 
The lengthy civil wars marking the transition from Ming to Qing caused a breakdown in the Imperial kilns system, forcing the managers to find new markets. The Transitional porcelain of about 1620 to the 1680s saw a new style in painting, mostly in blue and white, with new subject-matter of landscapes and figures painted very freely, borrowing from other media. The later part of the period saw Europe joining the existing export markets.

The Qing dynasty produced very varied porcelain styles, developing many of the innovations of the Ming. The most notable area of continuing innovation was in the increasing range of colours available, mostly in overglaze enamels.  A very significant trade in Chinese export porcelain with the West developed.  Court taste was highly eclectic, still favouring monochrome wares, which now used a wide range of bright glaze colours.  Special glazing effects were highly regarded; new ones were developed and classic Song wares imitated with great skill. But the court now accepted wares with painted scenes in both blue and white and the new bright polychrome palettes.  Technical standards at Jingdezhen were remarkably high, though falling somewhat by the middle of the 19th century.

Decoration, and sometimes shapes, became increasingly over-elaborate and fussy, and generally the Ming period is regarded as the greater; indeed in China this was the case at the time.  By the 18th century the tradition had ceased to innovate in any radical way, and the vitality of painting declines.

Primary source material on Qing dynasty porcelain is available from both foreign residents and domestic authors. Two letters written by Père François Xavier d'Entrecolles, a Jesuit missionary and industrial spy who lived and worked in Jingdezhen in the early 18th century, described in detail manufacturing of porcelain in the city.

[43] In his first letter dated 1712, d'Entrecolles described the way in which pottery stones were crushed, refined and formed into little white bricks, known in Chinese as petuntse. He then went on to describe the refining of china clay kaolin along with the developmental stages of glazing and firing. He explained his motives:

« Nothing but my curiosity could ever have prompted me to such researches, but it appears to me that a minute description of all that concerns this kind of work might, be useful in Europe. »

In 1743, during the reign of the Qianlong Emperor, Tang Ying, the imperial supervisor in the city produced a memoir entitled "Twenty illustrations of the manufacture of porcelain". The original illustrations have been lost, but the text of the memoir is still accessible.[44]

(Referanser - før ... )

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  1. ↑ Bar-Yosef, Ofer; Arpin, Trina; Pan, Yan; Cohen, David; Goldberg, Paul; Zhang, Chi; Wu, Xiaohong (29 June 2012). «Early Pottery at 20,000 Years Ago in Xianrendong Cave, China». Science (på engelsk) 336 (6089): 1696–1700. ISSN 0036-8075. doi:10.1126/science.1218643. 
  2. ↑ Marshall, Michael. «Oldest pottery hints at cooking's ice-age origins». www.newscientist.com. 
  3. ↑ "Harvard, BU researchers find evidence of 20,000-year-old pottery" Arkivert 2013-01-02 ved Archive.is. Boston.com, reporting Science paper.
  4. ↑ "Remnants of an Ancient Kitchen Are Found in China". The New York Times.
  5. ↑ "Chinese pottery may be earliest discovered." Associated Press. 2009-06-01, reporting on paper in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
  6. ↑ An Introduction To The Technology Of Pottery. 2nd edition. Paul Rado. Pergamon Press, Institute of Ceramics. 1988.
  7. ↑ Pierson, Stacey, (1996). Earth, Fire and Water: Chinese Ceramic Technology. Percival David Foundation of Chinese Art, University of London. ISBN 0-7286-0265-2.
  8. ↑ Valenstein, 22, 59–60, 72
  9. ↑ Bushell, S. W. (1977) Chinese Pottery and Porcelain. Oxford University Press, Kuala Lumpur. ISBN 0-19-580372-8.
  10. ↑ Korean art from the Gompertz and other collections in the Fitzwilliam Museum, ed. Yong-i Yun, Regina Krahl (chapter by Nigel Wood), p. 13
  11. ↑ kaolin - leirmineraler. Store norske leksikon. Vitja 2019-07-22
  12. ↑ 12,0 12,1 Kerr, Rose and Wood, Nigel (2004). Science and Civilisation in China, Volume 5, Part XII: Ceramic Technology. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-83833-9.
  13. ↑ Rawson, 364, 369–370; Vainker, 222–223
  14. ↑ «Harvard, BU researchers find evidence of 20,000-year-old pottery». Boston.com, som viste til Science. Arkivert frå originalen 2. januar 2013. 
  15. ↑ "Remnants of an Ancient Kitchen Are Found in China". The New York Times.
  16. ↑ {{kjelde www|url=http://www.cleveland.com/world/index.ssf/2009/06/chinese_pottery_may_be_earlies.html |tittel=Chinese pottery may be earliest discovered|dato=2009-06-01|utgjevar=Associated Press, som viste til Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
  17. ↑ He Li, (1996). Chinese Ceramics. The New Standard Guide. The Han Dynasty made the first ceramics to survive in appreciable quantities. Thames and Hudson, London. ISBN 0-500-23727-1.
  18. ↑ Hung, Ling-yu (2011), Pottery Production, Mortuary Practice, and Social Complexity in the Majiayao Culture, NW China (ca. 5300-4000 BP) (PhD) (589), Washington University in St. Louis: All Theses and Dissertations (ETDs) 
  19. ↑ Vainker 1991, s. 15–20
  20. ↑ Vainker, 15–20
  21. ↑ Vainker 1991, s. 12
  22. ↑ Vainker 1991, s. 19
  23. ↑ Vainker, 19
  24. ↑ Vainker 1991, s. 20–21
  25. ↑ Vainker, 20–21
  26. ↑ Zhiyan, Li, et al. (2010) Chinese Ceramics, From the paleolithic period through the Qing dynasty. Yale University Press, New Haven & London; Foreign Language Press, Beijing. ISBN 978-0-300-11278-8. p. 313. «What is clear is that in the Song Dynasty which tended to uphold the esthetics of conventional Confucianism, underglaze blue was not at all popular; Confucian esthetics emphasized simplicity, and the underglaze blue designs were judged to be too ornamental.»
  27. ↑ Karl Emil Strømstad m.fleire. Song-keramikk. Store norske leksikon. Vitja 2019-07-23. (Fri gjenbruk)
  28. ↑ Medley, 169
  29. ↑ Vainker, 115–117, 180
  30. ↑ Medley, 180–182
  31. ↑ Vainker, 139–140, 180
  32. ↑ Medley, 171
  33. ↑ Lion-Goldschmidt, 20, 47.
  34. ↑ «Buddhist Ablution Basin». Asian Art Museum. Arkivert frå originalen 9. desember 2008. 
  35. ↑ Handled Ewer, Asian Art Museum, arkivert frå originalen 9. desember 2008 
  36. ↑ Li He and Michael Knight, Power and Glory: Court Art of China's Ming Dynasty (San Francisco: Asian Art Museum, 2008), p. 130.
  37. ↑ Watt, Possessing the Past, pp. 439–41.
  38. ↑ James C.Y. Watt, "Official Art and Commercial Art," in Possessing the Past, p. 441.
  39. ↑ Wine cup, Met 
  40. ↑ James C.Y. Watt, "The Literati Environment," in The Chinese Scholar's Studio, pp. 1–13.
  41. ↑ Craig Clunas, Superfluous Things: Material Culture and Social Status in Early Modern China. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1991 and Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 2004.
  42. ↑ On the development of a market system and its impact on material culture more generally, see Timothy Brook, The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1998).
  43. ↑ see: Two letters written by Père Francois Xavier d'Entrecolles Arkivert 2012-11-24 ved WebCite at Ceramics Today.com
  44. ↑ «Tang Ying's "Twenty illustrations of the manufacture of porcelain."». Seattle Art Museum. Arkivert frå originalen 9. desember 2008. Henta 29 March 2018. 

bilder som er i artikkelen

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Ei krukke frå Jiajing-perioden (1521–1567) i Mingdynastiet

Øvrig

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"Kinesisk vase med dragedekor fra perioden [... tidsrom på 1500-talet ]. Vase av Nasjonalmuseet / Larsen, Frode" [3]


delvis frå https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_ceramics

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