Xiongnu

Xiongnu
Xiongnu
Bahasa Cina	匈奴
Hanyu Pinyin
Transkripsi
Bahasa Mandarin Baku
Hanyu Pinyin	Xiōngnú
Bopomofo	ㄒㄩㄥㄋㄨˊ
Gwoyeu Romatzyh	Shiongnu
Wade–Giles	Hsiung1-nu2
Tongyong Pinyin	Syong-nú
IPA	[ɕjʊ́ŋ.nǔ]
Bahasa Yue: Bahasa Kantonis
Perumian Yale	Hūng-nòuh
Jyutping	Hung1-nou4
IPA	Templat:IPAc-yue
Bahasa Min Selatan
Tâi-lô	Hing-lôo
Old Chinese
Baxter–Sagart (2014)	*qʰoŋ.nˤa
Zhengzhang	qʰoŋ.na:

Xiongnu
Xiongnu
Abad ke-3 SM–abad ke-1 Masihi
	Ralat Lua pada baris 27 di Modul:Location_map/multi: Tidak dapat cari takrifan peta lokasi yang ditentukan: "Modul:Peta lokasi/data/Continental Asia" tidak wujud. Wilayah Xiongnu pada abad ke-2 SM (sebelum Perang Han–Xiongnu pada 133 SM – 89 TM): ia merangkumi Mongolia, timur Kazakhstan, timur Kyrgyzstan, selatan Siberia, dan bahagian-bahagian utara China seperti barat Manchuria, Xinjiang, Mongolia Dalam dan Gansu.
Ibu negara	Otuken (sekitar Pergunungan Khangai masa kini, Arkhangai) ; ; Longcheng (ibu kota kemudian);
Bahasa yang umum digunakan	pelbagai
Agama	Shamanisme, Tengrisme, Buddhisme
Kerajaan	Puak konfederasi
Chanyu
• 220 - 209 SM	Touman
• 209 - 174 SM	Modu
• 174 - 161 SM	Laoshang
• 46 TM	Wudadihou
Sejarah
• Didirikan	Abad ke-3 SM
• Dibubarkan	abad ke-1 Masihi
Didahului oleh	Diganti oleh
	Budaya Kubur Batu
	Orang Donghu
	Yuezhi
	Saka
	Budaya Ordos
Dinasti Han
Negeri Xianbei
Kekhanan Rouran
Tokharia
Kekhanan Turkik Pertama

Xiongnu (Bahasa Cina: 匈奴code: zh is deprecated ; pinyin: Xiōngnú,^[12] [ɕjʊ́ŋ.nǔ]; Jawi: ‏شيوڠنو‎code: ms is deprecated ‎) ialah sebuah gabungan puak^[13] orang nomad yang, menurut sumber Cina purba, dahulu tinggal di Tataran Eurasia timur dari abad ke-3 SM hingga akhir abad ke-1 Masihi. Empayar Xiongnu diasaskan oleh pemimpin tertinggi Modu Chanyu selepas tahun 209 SM.

Selepas menggulingkan penguasa mereka sebelum ini,^[14] orang Yuezhi, Xiongnu menjadi kuasa dominan di tataran Asia Timur, berpusat di Penara Mongolia. Orang Xiongnu juga aktif di kawasan-kawasan yang kini sebahagian daripada Siberia, Mongolia Dalam, Gansu dan Xinjiang. Hubungan dengan jiran mereka di tenggara, dinasti-dinasti Cina, adalah kompleks—kadangkala aman, berperang, dan penaklukan. Akhirnya, Xiongnu dikalahkan oleh dinasti Han dalam konflik selama berabad-abad, yang membawa kepada konfederasi mereka berpecah kepada dua, serta penempatan semula secara paksa begitu ramai orang Xiongnu dalam sempadan Han. Semasa era Enam Belas Kerajaan, sebagai salah satu daripada "Lima Bangsa Gasar", mereka mengasaskan negeri-negeri dinasti Han-Zhao, Liang Utara dan Hu Xia di utara China.

Cubaan untuk mengaitkan Xiongnu dengan bangsa Saka dan Sarmatia yang berdekatan pernah menjadi topik berkontroversi. Walau bagaimanapun, bidang arkeogenetik telah mengesahkan mereka rnah inberteraksi dengan Xiorang ongnu, dan juga hubungan mereka dengan Hun .Identiti teras etnik Xiongnu telah menjadi subjek hipelbagai potesis, kerana hanya beberapa perkataan, terutamanya gelaran dan nama peribadi, masih terpelihara dalam sumber-sumber Cina. Nama Xiongnu mungkin serumpun dengan nama Hun dan/atau Huna,^[15]^[16]^[17] tetapi ini dipertikaikan.^[18]^[19] Antara hubungannya dengan bahasa lain—semuanya juga berkontroversi—yang dicadangkan oleh pakar termasuk Turkik,^[20]^[21]^[22]^[23]^[24]^[25] Iran,^[26]^[27]^[28] Mongolik,^[29] Ural,^[30] Yenisei,^[18]^[31]^[32]^[33] atau pelbagai etnik.^[34]

Rujukan

Petikan

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^ Zheng Zhang (Chinese: 鄭張), Shang-fang (Chinese: 尚芳). 奴 – 上古音系第九千六百字 [奴 – The 9600th word of the Ancient Phonological System]. ytenx.org [韻典網code: zh is deprecated ] (dalam bahasa Cina). Rearranged by BYVoid.韻典網Category:Rencana yang mengandungi teks bahasa Cinacode: zh is deprecated zh]&rft.atitle=奴 – 上古音系第九千六百字&rft.aulast=Zheng Zhang (Chinese: 鄭張)&rft.aufirst=Shang-fang (Chinese: 尚芳)&rft_id=http://ytenx.org/dciangx/dzih/%E5%A5%B4/&rfr_id=info:sid/ms.wikipedia.org:Xiongnu" class="Z3988">
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^ Harmatta 1994: "Puak-puak diraja dan raja-raja mereka (shan-yü) memakai nama-nama Iran dan semua perkataan Hsiung-nu yang dicatat oleh orang Cina boleh dikaitan datang daripada bahasa Iran jenis Saka. Oleh itu, jelas bahawa majoriti suku Hsiung-nu bercakap dalam bahasa Iran Timur."
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^ Adas 2001.
^ Vovin, Alexander (2000). "Did the Xiongnu speak a Yeniseian language?". Central Asiatic Journal. 44 (1): 87–104. JSTOR 41928223.
^ 高晶一, Jingyi Gao (2017). "Quèdìng xià guó jí kǎitè rén de yǔyán wéi shǔyú hànyǔ zú hé yè ní sāi yǔxì gòngtóng cí yuán" 確定夏國及凱特人的語言為屬於漢語族和葉尼塞語系共同詞源 [Xia and Ket Identified by Sinitic and Yeniseian Shared Etymologies]. Central Asiatic Journal. 60 (1–2): 51–58. doi:10.13173/centasiaj.60.1-2.0051. JSTOR 10.13173/centasiaj.60.1-2.0051.
^ Geng 2005.

Sumber

Sumber utama

Ban Gu et al., Kitab Han, terut. jld. 94, bahagian 1, bahagian 2 .
Fan Ye et al., Book of the Later Han, terut. jld. 89 .
Sima Qian et al., Rekod Ahli Sejarah Besar, terut. jld. 110 .

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[6] "Türklerin tarihî başkenti: Ötüken - Avrasya'dan - Haber".

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[:01-10] Zheng Zhang (Chinese: 鄭張), Shang-fang (Chinese: 尚芳). 匈 – 上古音系第一三千八百九十字 [匈 - The 13890th word of the Ancient Phonological System]. ytenx.org [韻典網code: zh is deprecated ] (dalam bahasa Cina). Rearranged by BYVoid.韻典網Category:Rencana yang mengandungi teks bahasa Cinacode: zh is deprecated zh]&rft.atitle=匈 – 上古音系第一三千八百九十字&rft.aulast=Zheng Zhang (Chinese: 鄭張)&rft.aufirst=Shang-fang (Chinese: 尚芳)&rft_id=http://ytenx.org/dciangx/dzih/%E5%8C%88/&rfr_id=info:sid/ms.wikipedia.org:Xiongnu" class="Z3988">

[:02-11] Zheng Zhang (Chinese: 鄭張), Shang-fang (Chinese: 尚芳). 奴 – 上古音系第九千六百字 [奴 – The 9600th word of the Ancient Phonological System]. ytenx.org [韻典網code: zh is deprecated ] (dalam bahasa Cina). Rearranged by BYVoid.韻典網Category:Rencana yang mengandungi teks bahasa Cinacode: zh is deprecated zh]&rft.atitle=奴 – 上古音系第九千六百字&rft.aulast=Zheng Zhang (Chinese: 鄭張)&rft.aufirst=Shang-fang (Chinese: 尚芳)&rft_id=http://ytenx.org/dciangx/dzih/%E5%A5%B4/&rfr_id=info:sid/ms.wikipedia.org:Xiongnu" class="Z3988">

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[13] "Xiongnu People". britannica.com. Encyclopædia Britannica. Diarkibkan daripada yang asal pada 11 March 2020. Dicapai pada 25 July 2015.

[14] Chase-Dunn, C.; Anderson, E. (18 February 2005). The Historical Evolution of World-Systems (dalam bahasa Inggeris). Springer. m/s. 36-37. ISBN 978-1-4039-8052-6.

[FOOTNOTEGrousset1970-15] Grousset 1970.

[FOOTNOTEPulleyblank2000-16] Pulleyblank 2000.

[FOOTNOTESchuessler2014-17] Schuessler 2014.

[FOOTNOTEBeckwith2009-18] Beckwith 2009.

[vaissiere2006-19] "Xiongnu". Encyclopedia Iranica online. 15 November 2006. Diarkibkan daripada yang asal pada 4 January 2012.

[FOOTNOTEHucker1975-20] Hucker 1975.

[21] Savelyev, Alexander; Jeong, Choongwon (10 May 2020). "Early nomads of the Eastern Steppe and their tentative connections in the West". Evolutionary Human Sciences. 2. doi:10.1017/ehs.2020.18. PMC 7612788. The predominant part of the Xiongnu population is likely to have spoken Turkic (Late Proto-Turkic, to be more precise)

[22] Robbeets, Martine; Bouckaert, Remco (1 July 2018). "Bayesian phylolinguistics reveals the internal structure of the Transeurasian family". Journal of Language Evolution. 3 (2): 145–162. doi:10.1093/jole/lzy007. ISSN 2058-4571.

[23] "Northern Dynasties and Southern Dynasties", Chinese Architecture, Princeton University Press: 72–103, 14 May 2019, doi:10.2307/j.ctvc77f7s.11, dicapai pada 1 April 2023Larousse, Éditions. "Turcs ou Turks - LAROUSSE". www.larousse.fr (dalam bahasa Perancis). Dicapai pada 1 April 2023.

[24] Book of Zhou, vol. 50.

[25] Sims-Williams 2004.Pritsak 1959.

[Harmatta488-26] Harmatta 1994: "Puak-puak diraja dan raja-raja mereka (shan-yü) memakai nama-nama Iran dan semua perkataan Hsiung-nu yang dicatat oleh orang Cina boleh dikaitan datang daripada bahasa Iran jenis Saka. Oleh itu, jelas bahawa majoriti suku Hsiung-nu bercakap dalam bahasa Iran Timur."

[FOOTNOTEBailey1985-27] Bailey 1985.

[FOOTNOTEJankowski2006-28] Jankowski 2006.

[Tumen-29] "Anthropology of Archaeological Populations from Northeast Asia" (PDF). Oriental Studies. Dankook University Institute of Oriental Studies. 49: 25, 27. February 2011. Diarkibkan daripada yang asal (PDF) pada 29 July 2013.

[FOOTNOTEDi_Cosmo2004-30] Di Cosmo 2004.

[FOOTNOTEAdas2001-31] Adas 2001.

[32] Vovin, Alexander (2000). "Did the Xiongnu speak a Yeniseian language?". Central Asiatic Journal. 44 (1): 87–104. JSTOR 41928223.

[33] 高晶一, Jingyi Gao (2017). "Quèdìng xià guó jí kǎitè rén de yǔyán wéi shǔyú hànyǔ zú hé yè ní sāi yǔxì gòngtóng cí yuán" 確定夏國及凱特人的語言為屬於漢語族和葉尼塞語系共同詞源 [Xia and Ket Identified by Sinitic and Yeniseian Shared Etymologies]. Central Asiatic Journal. 60 (1–2): 51–58. doi:10.13173/centasiaj.60.1-2.0051. JSTOR 10.13173/centasiaj.60.1-2.0051.

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