Khazar

Kekhanan Khazar
Kekhanan Khazar
s. 650–969
	Kekhanan Khazar, 650–850
Status	Kekhanan
Ibu negara	Balanjar (s. 650 – s. 720); Samandar (720–750); Atil (750 – c. 965–969);
Bahasa yang umum digunakan	Oghurik (lingua franca); Bahasa Turkik Kuno (dinastik, dituturkan); Bahasa Alania (dituturkan);
Agama	Agama Yahudi; Kristian Yahudi; Tengrisme; Buddhisme; Agama Kristian; Islam; Paganisme; Sinkretisme keagamaan;
Qaghan
• s. 650	Irbis
• abad ke-8	Bulan
• abad ke-9	Obadiah
• abad ke-9	Zachariah
• abad ke-9	Manasseh
• abad ke-9	Benjamin
• abad ke-10	Aaron
• abad ke-10	Joseph
• abad ke-10	David
• abad ke-11	Georgios
Sejarah
• Didirikan	s. 650
• Penjarahan dan peranapan Atil oleh Sviatoslav	969
Keluasan
ang. 850	3,000,000 km2 (1,200,000 bt2)
ang. 900	1,000,000 km2 (390,000 bt2)
Mata wang	Yarmaq
Didahului oleh	Diganti oleh
	Kekhanan Turkik Barat
	Bulgaria Raya Lama
Cumania
Pecheneg
Rus' Kiev
Durdzuk
Bulgaria Volga

Orang Khazar^[c] (Jawi: ‏خزار‎code: ms is deprecated ‎) merupakan satu kaum orang Turkik nomad yang, pada akhir abad ke-6 TM, telah emngasaskan sebuah empayar perdagangan besar yang menjangkau tenggara Rusia moden Eropah, selatan Ukraine, Krimea dan Kazakhstan.^[10] Mereka mencipta sebuah kerajaan paling berkuasa yang muncul daripada perpecahan Kekhanan Turkik Barat.^[11] Dengan berada di laluan perdagangan utama antara Eropah Timur dan Asia Barat Daya, Khazaria menjadi salah satu empayar perdagangan terulung semasa awal zaman pertengahan, mengawal kawasan mark barat Jalan Sutera dan menjadi persimpangan komersial yang utama di antara China, Timur Tengah dan Rus' Kiev.^[12]^[13] Sepanjang kira-kira tiga abad (s. 650 – 965) orang Khazar menguasai dari pararum Volga-Don hingga ke timur Krimea dan utara Caucasus.^[12]

Khazaria telah lama menjadi negara penampan antara Empayar Byzantium dan kedua-dua bangsa nomad pararum utara, serta Kekhalifahan Umaiyah dan Abbasiyah, selepas berkhidmat sebagai proksi Empayar Byzantium melawan Empayar Sasan. Perikatan mereka berhenti sekitar tahun 900. Byzantium mula menggalakkan bangsa Alan untuk menyerang Khazaria dan melemahkan cengkamannya di Krimea dan Caucasus supaya dapat membuat pakatan dengan Rus' yang semakin berkuasa di utara, yang kemudian memeluk agama Kristian di tangan Byzantium sendiri.^[12] Antara tahun 965 dan 969, pemerintah Rus' Kiev, Sviatoslav I dari Kiev, serta sekutu-sekutu baginda, menakluk ibu kota, Atil, dan menamatkan kemerdekaan Khazaria. Negeri tersebut menjadi entiti berautonomi milik Rus' dan kemudian milik wilayah-wilayah lama Khazaria (Khwarazm di mana orang Khazar dikenali sebagai orang Turk, sama seperti orang Hungary dikenali sebagai orang Turk di Byzantium) di Volga Bulgaria.

Memahami dari mana orang Khazar berasal dan apa yang mereka percayai berkait rapat dengan bahasa mereka. Walau bagaimanapun, sukar untuk mengetahui dengan pasti kerana tidak ada tulisan kuno dalam bahasa Khazar yang tinggal, dan masyarakatnya terdiri daripada orang-orang dari latar belakang yang berbeza dan bercakap bahasa yang berbeza. Agama asli orang Khazar dipercayai ialah Tengrisme, sama seperti orang Hun Kaukasia Utara dan orang Turkik lain.^[14] Masyarakat Khazar termasuk orang yang menyembah pelbagai agama seperti paganisme, Tengrisme, Yahudi, Kristian, dan Islam.^[14] Sebahagian orang Khazar (iaitu suku Kabar) menyertai orang Hungary purba pada abad ke-9. Golongan pemerintah Khazar dikatakan oleh Judah Halevi dan Abraham bin Daud telah memeluk agama Yahudi Rabinik pada abad ke-8,^[14] tetapi betapa ramainya orang yang memeluk Yahudi masih tidak pasti. ^[15]

Selepas Empayar Khazar jatuh, ramai yang tertanya-tanya ke mana perginya Khazar. Ada yang percaya bahawa orang Khazar mungkin telah berpecah menjadi pelbagai kumpulan, seperti Hazara, Hungary, Kazakh, Kosak di wilayah Don dan Ukraine, Yahudi Bukhara, Kumyk Muslim, Krymchak yang berbahasa Turki dan jiran-jiran mereka orang Karai Krimea, Csángós Moldavia, Yahudi Gunung, malah beberapa Subbotnik (berdasarkan asal usul mereka dari Ukraine dan Kosak).^[16]^[17] ^[18] Pada penghujung abad ke-19, muncul satu teori bahawa Yahudi Ashkenaz hari ini mungkin berasal daripada sekumpulan Yahudi Khazar yang berhijrah ke Perancis dan Jerman dari Rusia dan Ukraine. Walau bagaimanapun, penyelidikan dalam bahasa dan genetik tidak menyokong idea ini. Walaupun ada yang masih berpegang pada teori ini, kebanyakan sarjana sangsi.^[19]^[15] Teori ini kadangkala dikaitkan dengan antisemitisme^[20] dan anti-Zionisme.^[21]

Dalam bahasa Turki Oghuz, Laut Kaspia masih dinamakan "Laut Khazar", satu warisan kekal kerajaan Khazar zaman pertengahan.

Nota

Nota kaki

^ "Orang 'Gazari ini mungkin orang Khazar, tetapi nama ini ataupun Kozary daripada 'Vita Constantini yang hidup hampir sezaman dengan mereka ... mungkin merujuk kepada mana-mana kaum orang di dalam Khazaria." (Golden 2007b, p. 139)
^ "Namun, agak kemudian dalam surat kepada Maharaja Byzantium Basil I, dari tahun 871, Louis dari Jerman jelas tidak bersetuju dengan penggunaan nama itu oleh orang Byzantium, mengisytiharkan bahawa 'kami tidak mendapati bahawa pemimpin Avar, atau Khazar (Gasanorum)'..." (Golden 2001a, p. 33)
^ Yunani: Χάζαροιcode: el is deprecated Kházaroi; Ibrani: כּוּזָרִים, rumi: Kūzārīmcode: he is deprecated ;^[6] Latin: Gazaricode: la is deprecated ,^[7]^[a] or Gasanicode: la is deprecated ;^[b]^[8] Cina: 突厥曷薩 Tūjué Hésàcode: zh is deprecated ; 突厥可薩 Tūjué Kěsà, har. Türk Khazar^[9]

Nota sumber

Petikan

Bibliografi

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Pautan luar

[8] "Orang 'Gazari ini mungkin orang Khazar, tetapi nama ini ataupun Kozary daripada 'Vita Constantini yang hidup hampir sezaman dengan mereka ... mungkin merujuk kepada mana-mana kaum orang di dalam Khazaria." (Golden 2007b, p. 139)

[9] "Namun, agak kemudian dalam surat kepada Maharaja Byzantium Basil I, dari tahun 871, Louis dari Jerman jelas tidak bersetuju dengan penggunaan nama itu oleh orang Byzantium, mengisytiharkan bahawa 'kami tidak mendapati bahawa pemimpin Avar, atau Khazar (Gasanorum)'..." (Golden 2001a, p. 33)

[12] Yunani: Χάζαροιcode: el is deprecated Kházaroi; Ibrani: כּוּזָרִים, rumi: Kūzārīmcode: he is deprecated ;^[6] Latin: Gazaricode: la is deprecated ,^[7]^[a] or Gasanicode: la is deprecated ;^[b]^[8] Cina: 突厥曷薩 Tūjué Hésàcode: zh is deprecated ; 突厥可薩 Tūjué Kěsà, har. Türk Khazar^[9]

[FOOTNOTEGolden200691-1] Golden 2006, m/s. 91.

[FOOTNOTEWexler199650-2] Wexler 1996, m/s. 50.

[FOOTNOTEBrook2010107-3] Brook 2010, m/s. 107.

[FOOTNOTETurchinAdamsHall2006222-4] Turchin, Adams & Hall 2006, m/s. 222.

[FOOTNOTETaagepera1997496-5] Taagepera 1997, m/s. 496.

[FOOTNOTELuttwak2009152-6] Luttwak 2009, m/s. 152.

[FOOTNOTEMeserve2009294,_n._164-7] Meserve 2009, m/s. 294, n. 164.

[FOOTNOTEPetrukhin2007255-10] Petrukhin 2007, m/s. 255.

[FOOTNOTEGolden2018294-11] Golden 2018, m/s. 294.

[FOOTNOTEEncyclopedia_Britannica:_Khazar2020-13] Encyclopedia Britannica: Khazar 2020.

[FOOTNOTESneath2007-14] Sneath 2007.

[FOOTNOTENoonan1999-15] Noonan 1999.

[FOOTNOTEGolden2011a-16] Golden 2011a.

[FOOTNOTEGolden2007a-17] Golden 2007a.

[FOOTNOTEBeharMetspaluBaranKopelman2013-18] Behar dll. 2013.

[FOOTNOTEKizilov2009-19] Kizilov 2009.

[FOOTNOTEPataiPatai1989-20] Patai & Patai 1989.

[FOOTNOTEWexler1987-21] Wexler 1987.

[FOOTNOTEWexler2002-22] Wexler 2002.

[FOOTNOTEDavies1992-23] Davies 1992.

[FOOTNOTEVogt1975-24] Vogt 1975.

[c]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

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[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]

[19]

[20]

[21]

[6]

[7]

[a]

[b]

[8]

[9]