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シオニズム ([ˈzaɪəˌnɪzəm]; ヘブライ語: צִיּוֹנוּת‎ Tsīyyonūt, [tsijoˈnut]; シオンに由来) は、19世紀にユダヤ人のための祖国（英語版）をパレスチナに建設するために生まれたナショナリズム運動^[3] であり^[4]^[5]^[6]^[7] 、パレスチナはユダヤの伝統（英語版）におけるイスラエルの地にほぼ相当する^[8]^[9]^[10]^[11]。近代イスラエル国家の設立（英語版）の後、シオニズムはユダヤ人国家としてのイスラエル国の発展と保護を支援するイデオロギーとなった^[12]^[13]。

シオニズムは19 世紀後半に民族復興運動（英語版）として中央および東ヨーロッパで始まった運動であり、反ユダヤ主義の新たな高まりに対する反動と、ハスカーラー、すなわちユダヤ教の啓蒙運動の結果として起こった^[14]^[15]^[16]。運動が起きてすぐに、多くのシオニズムの指導者は、当時オスマン帝国の支配下にあったパレスチナにユダヤ人が切望する祖国を建設することが主な目標であると考えた^[17]^[18]。この建国の過程は、シオニズム運動において「離散民の集結（英語版）」（キブツ・ガルヨット (kibbutz galuyot)）、すなわちユダヤ人が歴史的な祖国に戻ることによってユダヤ人の脱出と迫害の歴史に終止符を打つ試みとみなされた^[19]。

1897年から1948年までのシオニズム運動の主な目標は、パレスチナにユダヤ人の祖国の基礎を確立し、それを強化することであった。民族自決の原則の独自の一形態として^[20]、1884 年にホヴェヴェイ・ツィヨン (「シオンの恋人たち」の意) が結成され、1897年に最初のシオニスト会議が組織された。19世紀後半から20世紀初頭にかけて多くのユダヤ人が初代オスマン帝国と後の委任統治領パレスチナに移住し、それと同時に世界的な承認と支持を得るための外交努力も行われた。1948年のイスラエル建国以来、シオニズムはイスラエル国に代わって国を擁護し、国の存続と安全に対する脅威に対処し続けている。

シオニズムは決して画一的な運動ではなく、その指導者、政党、イデオロギーは互いに異なることが度々あった。反ユダヤ主義が高まるにつれてユダヤ人が祖先の国への帰還を切望した結果、共通の文化的、政治的目標を達成するために妥協と譲歩が行われた。政治的シオニズム（英語版）、自由主義シオニズム（英語版）、労働シオニズム、修正主義シオニズム（英語版）、文化シオニズム（英語版）、宗教シオニズム（英語版）などの、さまざまな類型のシオニズムが勃興した。シオニズム支持者の視点では、シオニズム運動とは、迫害の対象であり国民的同一性を共有する先住民族を、古代史に記されているように祖先の祖国に帰還させるための民族解放運動である^[21]。同様に反シオニズムにも多くの側面があり、植民地主義、人種差別主義、もしくは例外主義（英語版）などの、入植植民地主義（英語版）を通じたイデオロギーや運動としてのシオニズム批判がある^[22]^[23]^[24]^[25]^[26]。なお、シオニズム支持者は、シオニズムを入植者植民地主義または例外主義として特徴付けることを必ずしも拒否しているわけではない^[27]^[28]^[29]。

用語

「シオニズム」の用語は、エルサレムにあるシオン (ヘブライ語: ציון‎) の丘の名前に由来しており、その場所はイスラエルの地の象徴としても広く知られている。 19 世紀後半の東ヨーロッパ全域で、一般大衆ユダヤ人による多数の団体がユダヤ人の祖国への国家的な再移住と^[30]、ヘブライ語の再興および育成を推進した。これらの団体は総称して「ホヴェヴェイ・ツィヨン」（「シオンの恋人たち」の意）と呼ばれ、ユダヤ人の同化運動への対抗勢力と見なされていた。「シオニズム」との用語を最初に使用したのは、カディマ（ユダヤ民族学生結社）の創設者であるオーストリア人のネイサン・バーンバウム（英語版）と考えられている。バーンバウムは1890 年に自身の雑誌『Selbst-Emancipation』 (自己解放) でこの用語を使用したが^[31]^[32]、レオン・ピンスケルが1882 年の著書『Auto-Emancipation（英語版）』 (自己解放) で用いた言葉とほぼ同一である。

概要

すべての現代のシオニストに共通する点はパレスチナに対する主張である。パレスチナの土地は、ユダヤ教の書物ではユダヤ人の祖国として、かつユダヤ人の民族自決の正当な活動の焦点としての「イスラエルの地」("Eretz Israel") として伝統的に知られている。パレスチナに対する主張は、歴史的なつながりと宗教的伝統を根拠としてユダヤ人とイスラエルの地を結びつけている。シオニズムには統一されたイデオロギーはないが、一般シオニズム、宗教シオニズム、労働シオニズム、修正主義シオニズム、グリーン・シオニズム（英語版）など、多数のイデオロギー間の対話の中で進化してきた。

シオニズム運動の旗。1891年に採用され、後に1948年設立されたイスラエル国の国旗となった。

この地域でユダヤ人が最後に多数派であった後の約1400年の間、世界のユダヤ人の大部分は、ユダヤ人国家を持たず、ローマ帝国以降ディアスポラとしてさまざまな国に居住していた^[33]。シオニズム運動は、フランスのドレフュス事件やロシア帝国の反ユダヤのポグロムに代表されるヨーロッパでの反ユダヤ主義の台頭に対するアシュケナージ系ユダヤ人の反応として、19世紀後半に世俗的なユダヤ人の間で興った。この政治運動は、1897年にオーストリア＝ハンガリー人のジャーナリスト、テオドール・ヘルツルによる著書『Der Judenstaat（英語版）』(ユダヤ国家) の出版によって正式に始まった。ヘルツルは当時、ユダヤ人、とりわけ貧しいユダヤ人社会で現地に同化することなく浮いた存在として平穏を乱していたユダヤ人がオスマン・パレスチナ（英語版）に移住することは、同化したヨーロッパのユダヤ人やキリスト教徒にとって有益だと考えていた^[34]。この政治的シオニズムは、ある意味で、二千年にわたるユダヤ教とラビの伝統からの劇的な決別であった。他のヨーロッパのナショナリズム運動から着想を得たシオニズムは、特にドイツにおけるヨーロッパ啓蒙思想を基に形作られたことで、ドイツの国家主義的原則がシオニストによるナショナリズム運動の重要な特徴となった。ナショナリズム史の歴史家でありユダヤ人のハンス・コーン（英語版）は、シオニズム的ナショナリズム運動は「ユダヤ人の伝統とは何の関係もなく、多くの点でユダヤ人の伝統に反していた」と主張した。シオニズムには初期の頃から批判があり、20世紀初頭の文化シオニストであるアハド・ハアムは、ヘルツルのシオニズム運動には創造性がなく、その文化はヨーロッパ、特にドイツ的なものであると著書に記した。ハアムは、シオニズム運動はユダヤ人を帝国主義ヨーロッパ文化の単なる伝達者と見做していると見ていた^[35]。

「私は、ユダヤ人の素晴らしい時代が誕生すると信じている。マカバイは再び立ち上がるだろう。冒頭の言葉をもう一度繰り返させてほしい。国家を望むユダヤ人はそれを手に入れるだろう。我々は最終的には自由人として我々の土地に生き、我々の家で安らかに死ぬだろう。世界は我々の自由によって解放され、我々の富によって豊かになり、我々の偉大さによって拡大されるだろう。そして、我々が自身の幸福のためにそこで達成しようとするものはすべて、善と人道のために力強く有益に作用するであろう。」

テオドール・ヘルツル『ユダヤ人国家』(1896年) の最後の一節 ^[36]

シオニズムは、当初はユダヤ人の同化と反ユダヤ主義に対する代替的な対応を提案するユダヤ人政治運動の一つに過ぎなかったが、後に急速に拡大した。初期の頃は、支持者らはパレスチナの歴史的領土にユダヤ人国家を設立することを検討していたが、第二次世界大戦によってシオニズム運動が根付いていた中央および東ヨーロッパでユダヤ人の生活が破壊された後は、ユダヤ人国家建設の思想が支配的になった。この時期のシオニズム運動は、アラブ人とユダヤ人の混合都市に住む宗教的で非シオニストの旧イシューヴのユダヤ人は、新イシューヴの世俗的シオニストと比較して後進的であると見なす言説を展開するようになった^[35]。

シオニズム運動が発展する初期の頃から、ヘルツル、ハイム・ヴァイツマン、ダヴィド・ベン＝グリオンなどのシオニスト指導者はヨーロッパ列強の支援が必要であると考えていた。シオニストたちはイギリスと同盟を結び、パレスチナへのユダヤ人移住への数年間の支援を確保するとともに、ヨーロッパ系ユダヤ人、特に反ユダヤ主義が激化するロシア帝国の地域に住むユダヤ人からの移民を募集した。イギリスとの同盟は、シオニズム運動によってパレスチナのアラブ人に引き起こされるであろう結果がやがて認識されるようになったために緊張状態となったが、シオニストは固執した。この運動は最終的に成功し、1948年5月14日 (ユダヤ暦 5 Iyyar 5708) にユダヤ人ための祖国としてイスラエル国が建国された。この運動が始まって以来、世界のユダヤ人のうちイスラエルに住むユダヤ人の割合は着実に増加している。21世紀初頭には、世界のユダヤ人（英語版）の40％以上がイスラエルに住んでおり、これは他のどの国よりも多い。これら二つの成果はシオニズム運動の歴史的成功を表しており、過去二千年間の他のユダヤ人による政治運動にも例がないものである。いくつかの学術研究では、シオニズムはディアスポラによる政治運動（英語版）というより大きな文脈の中で、また現代の民族解放運動の一例として分析されている。

シオニズムはまた、ユダヤ人を近代社会に同化させようとした。ディアスポラという立場の結果から、多くのユダヤ人は居住する国の中で依然として部外者であって、近代的思想から疎外されるようになった。いわゆる「同化主義者」のユダヤ人はヨーロッパ社会への完全な融合を望み、自らのユダヤ人としてのアイデンティティを軽視したり、場合によっては近代化する社会へ同化するために伝統的な見方や意見を放棄したりすることをいとわなかった。それほど極端ではない形態の同化は文化的統合と呼ばれた。文化的統合を支持する人々は、継続性と緩やかな進化のみを望み、ユダヤ人が民族としてのアイデンティティを失わないよう懸念していた。「文化的統合主義者」は、伝統的なユダヤ人の価値観と信仰を維持する必要性と、例えば労働日や規則を遵守するなど、近代主義社会に適合する必要性の両方を強調した。

1975年、国際連合総会はシオニズムを「人種差別と人種差別の一形態」と指定する国連総会決議3379（英語版）を可決した。イスラエルは、1991年マドリードで開催する中東和平会議へイスラエルが参加する条件として、決議3379に含まれる決議を取り消すことを規定した国連総会決議46/48（英語版）の可決を条件とし、決議46/48により決議3379は1991年に破棄された^[37]。

シオニズムの信念

民族的単一性と聖書に記されたユダヤ人の子孫

初期のシオニストは、ユダヤ人は人種であるという考えを支持するユダヤ人から主に構成されており、人種の共通性は「共通の血統を有するという民族ナショナリズム的な神話の科学的な『証拠』となる」と考えられていた^[38]。シオニストによるナショナリズム運動は、ドイツの人種的ナショナリズムであるフェルキッシュ理論に基づき、共通の血統を持つ人々は分離を求めて独自の国家を形成すべきであるというものであった^[35]。この「ユダヤ人のアイデンティティの人種化」はシオニズム創始者のレトリックによるものであり、元はヨーロッパの反ユダヤ主義に対する反動だった^[39]。遺伝学者のラファエル・フォーク（英語版）によれば、すでに1870年代初頭には、啓蒙主義の時代とロマン主義の時代に統合され同化されたユダヤ人コミュニティの間で主に文化的な視点があったのとは対照的に、「シオニストになる者たちは、ユダヤ人は単に文化的または宗教的存在の一員であるだけでなく、一体的な生物学的存在の一員でもあることを強調した」^[40]。このユダヤ人らしさの再概念化は、何世紀にもわたる宗教的かつ社会文化的集団としてのユダヤ人の概念とは対照的に、ユダヤ人コミュニティの「Volk（英語版）」（ドイツ語で「人」の意）を国家的人種として位置づけた^[40]。ユダヤ人歴史家のハインリヒ・グレーツとサイモン・ドゥブノウは、ナショナリストによるプロジェクトとしてのシオニズムの創設に大きく貢献したと考えられている。彼らは、国家のアイデンティティと意識を再構築する際に、宗教的なユダヤの起源のと非ユダヤ人の文献を利用した。この新しいユダヤ人の歴史学は、伝統的なユダヤ人の集団的記憶から切り離され、時には対立することもあった^[35]。

歴史

[[Category:民族主義]] [[Category:政治運動]] [[Category:ユダヤ教の運動]] [[Category:シオニズム]] [[Category:Webarchiveテンプレートのウェイバックリンク]]

^ Medding, P.Y. (1995). Studies in Contemporary Jewry: XI: Values, Interests, and Identity: Jews and Politics in a Changing World. OUP USA/Institute of Contemporary Jewry, Hebrew University of Jerusalem. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-19-510331-1 March 11, 2019閲覧。
^ Gans, Chaim (2008) (英語). A Just Zionism: On the Morality of the Jewish State. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195340686.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-986717-2. オリジナルのDecember 27, 2019時点におけるアーカイブ。 March 16, 2019閲覧。
^ シオニズムは民族主義の一形態として説明されている。^[1] or as a form of ethno-cultural nationalism with civic nationalist components.^[2]
^ “Zionism and Israel” (英語). pluralism.org. 2024年2月19日閲覧。
^ Herzl, Theodor Sylvie d'Avigdor訳 (1988) [1896]. “Biography, by Alex Bein”. Der Judenstaat [The Jewish state] (republication ed.). New York: Courier Dover. p. 40. ISBN 978-0-486-25849-2 September 28, 2010閲覧。
^ “Zionism”. Oxford Dictionary. April 4, 2016時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。June 30, 2016閲覧。
^ “Zionism | nationalistic movement”. December 25, 2018時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。June 30, 2016閲覧。
^ Safrai, Zeʾev (2018-05-02), “The Land in Rabbinic Literature” (英語), Seeking out the Land: Land of Israel Traditions in Ancient Jewish, Christian and Samaritan Literature (200 BCE – 400 CE) (Brill): pp. 76–203, ISBN 978-90-04-33482-3, オリジナルのJune 27, 2023時点におけるアーカイブ。 2023年7月6日閲覧。 "The preoccupation of rabbinic literature in all its forms with the Land of Israel is without question intensive and constant. It is no wonder that this literature offers historians of the Land of Israel a wealth of information for the clarification of a wide variety of topics."
^ Biger, Gideon (2004) (英語). The Boundaries of Modern Palestine, 1840–1947. Routledge. pp. 58–63. ISBN 978-1-135-76652-8. "Unlike the earlier literature that dealt with Palestine's delimitation, the boundaries were not presented according to their historical traditional meaning, but according to the boundaries of the Jewish Eretz Israel that was about to be established there. This approach characterizes all the Zionist publications at the time ... when they came to indicate borders, they preferred the realistic condition and strategic economic needs over an unrealistic dream based on the historic past.' This meant that planners envisaged a future Palestine that controlled all the Jordan's sources, the southern part of the Litanni river in Lebanon, the large cultivatable area east of the Jordan, including the Houran and Gil'ad wheat zone, Mt Hermon, the Yarmuk and Yabok rivers, the Hijaz Railway ..."
^ Motyl 2001, p. 604.
^ Herzl, Theodor Sylvie d'Avigdor訳 (1988). “Biography, by Alex Bein”. Der Judenstaat [The Jewish state] (republication ed.). New York: Courier Dover. p. 40. ISBN 978-0-486-25849-2. オリジナルのJanuary 1, 2014時点におけるアーカイブ。 September 28, 2010閲覧。
^ "Zionism". Oxford Learner's Dictionaries. Oxford. 2022年11月24日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2023年12月11日閲覧。
^ "Zionism". Oxford Learner's Dictionaries. Oxford. 2022年11月24日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2023年12月11日閲覧。
^ Ben-Ami Shillony (2012). Jews & the Japanese: The Successful Outsiders. Tuttle Publishing. p. 88. ISBN 978-1-4629-0396-2. オリジナルのDecember 25, 2018時点におけるアーカイブ。 November 21, 2017閲覧. "(Zionism) arose in response to and in imitation of the current national movements of Central, Southern, and Eastern Europe"
^ LeVine, Mark; Mossberg, Mathias (2014). One Land, Two States: Israel and Palestine as Parallel States. University of California Press. p. 211. ISBN 978-0-520-95840-1. オリジナルのNovember 17, 2016時点におけるアーカイブ。 March 16, 2016閲覧. "The parents of Zionism were not Judaism and tradition, but antiSemitism and nationalism. The ideals of the French Revolution spread slowly across Europe, finally reaching the Pale of Settlement in the Russian Empire and helping to set off the Haskalah, or Jewish Enlightenment. This engendered a permanent split in the Jewish world, between those who held to a halachic or religious-centric vision of their identity and those who adopted in part the racial rhetoric of the time and made the Jewish people into a nation. This was helped along by the wave of pogroms in Eastern Europe that set two million Jews to flight; most wound up in America, but some chose Palestine. A driving force behind this was the Hovevei Zion movement, which worked from 1882 to develop a Hebrew identity that was distinct from Judaism as a religion."
^ Gelvin, James L. (2014). The Israel-Palestine Conflict: One Hundred Years of War. Cambridge University Press. p. 93. ISBN 978-1-107-47077-4. オリジナルのNovember 17, 2016時点におけるアーカイブ。 March 16, 2016閲覧. "The fact that Palestinian nationalism developed later than Zionism and indeed in response to it does not in any way diminish the legitimacy of Palestinian nationalism or make it less valid than Zionism. All nationalisms arise in opposition to some "other". Why else would there be the need to specify who you are? And all nationalisms are defined by what they oppose. As we have seen, Zionism itself arose in reaction to anti-Semitic and exclusionary nationalist movements in Europe. It would be perverse to judge Zionism as somehow less valid than European anti-Semitism or those nationalisms. Furthermore, Zionism itself was also defined by its opposition to the indigenous Palestinian inhabitants of the region. Both the "conquest of land" and the "conquest of labor" slogans that became central to the dominant strain of Zionism in the Yishuv originated as a result of the Zionist confrontation with the Palestinian "other"."
^ Cohen, Robin (1995). The Cambridge Survey of World Migration. Cambridge University Press. p. 504. ISBN 978-0-521-44405-7. "Zionism Colonize palestine."
^ Gelvin, James (2007). The Israel–Palestine Conflict: One Hundred Years of War (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 51. ISBN 978-0-521-88835-6. オリジナルのFebruary 20, 2017時点におけるアーカイブ。 February 19, 2016閲覧。
^ Gamlen, Alan (2019) (英語). Human Geopolitics: States, Emigrants, and the Rise of Diaspora Institutions. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-883349-9. オリジナルのJanuary 11, 2024時点におけるアーカイブ。 March 2, 2021閲覧。
^ Butenschøn, Nils A. (2006). “Accommodating Conflicting Claims to National Self-determination. The Intractable Case of Israel/Palestine”. International Journal on Minority and Group Rights 13 (2/3): 285–306. doi:10.1163/157181106777909858. ISSN 1385-4879. JSTOR 24675372. オリジナルのMarch 10, 2023時点におけるアーカイブ。 March 10, 2023閲覧. "[T]he Zionist claim to Palestine on behalf of world Jewry as an extra-territorial population was unique, and not supported (as admitted at the time) by established interpretations of the principle of national self-determination, expressed in the Covenant of the League of later versions), and as applied to the other territories with the same status as Palestine ('A' mandate)."
^ Aaronson, Ran (1996). “Settlement in Eretz Israel – A Colonialist Enterprise? "Critical" Scholarship and Historical Geography”. Israel Studies (Indiana University Press) 1 (2): 214–229 July 30, 2013閲覧。.
^ See for example: M. Shahid Alam (2010), Israeli Exceptionalism: The Destabilizing Logic of Zionism Paperback, or "Through the Looking Glass: The Myth of Israeli Exceptionalism" Archived September 21, 2017, at the Wayback Machine., Huffington Post
^ Nur Masalha (2007). The Bible and Zionism: Invented Traditions, Archaeology and Post-Colonialism in Palestine- Israel. Zed Books. p. 314. ISBN 978-1-84277-761-9. オリジナルのJanuary 12, 2017時点におけるアーカイブ。 February 19, 2016閲覧。
^ Ned Curthoys; Debjani Ganguly (2007). Edward Said: The Legacy of a Public Intellectual. Academic Monographs. p. 315. ISBN 978-0-522-85357-5. オリジナルのJanuary 12, 2017時点におけるアーカイブ。 May 12, 2013閲覧。
^ Nādira Shalhūb Kīfūrkiyān (2009). Militarization and Violence Against Women in Conflict Zones in the Middle East: A Palestinian Case-Study. Cambridge University Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-521-88222-4. オリジナルのMay 2, 2014時点におけるアーカイブ。 May 12, 2013閲覧。
^ Paul Scham; Walid Salem; Benjamin Pogrund (2005). Shared Histories: A Palestinian-Israeli Dialogue. Left Coast Press. pp. 87–. ISBN 978-1-59874-013-4. オリジナルのJanuary 7, 2014時点におけるアーカイブ。 May 12, 2013閲覧。
^ See Benny Morris (October 2008). 1948. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-14524-3
^ Norman G. Finkelstein (2003). Image and reality of the Israel-Palestine conflict. Verso Books. ISBN 978-1-85984-442-7. "To be sure, Jabotinsky freely referred to Zionism as a colonizing enterprise. Mainstream, labor Zionism’s preferred self-image was the morally more edifying and politically less incriminating one of the ‘pioneer’ (halutz)."
^ Norman G. Finkelstein (2003). Image and reality of the Israel-Palestine conflict. Verso Books. ISBN 978-1-85984-442-7. "The ‘defensive ethos’ was never the operative ideology of mainstream Zionism. From beginning to end, Zionism was a conquest movement. The subtitle of Shapira’s study is ‘The Zionist Resort to Force’. Yet, Zionism did not ‘resort’ to force. Force was – to use Shapira’s apt phrase in her conclusion – ‘inherent in the situation’ (p. 357). Gripped by messianism after the issuance of the Balfour Declaration, the Zionist movement sought to conquer Palestine with a Jewish Legion under the slogan ‘In blood and fire shall Judea rise again’ (pp. 83–98). When these apocalyptic hopes were dispelled and displaced by the mundane reality of the British Mandate, mainstream Zionism made a virtue of necessity and exalted labor as it proceeded to conquer Palestine ‘dunum by dunum, goat by goat’. Force had not been abandoned, however. Shapira falsely counterposes settlement (‘by virtue of labor’) to force (‘by dint of conquest’). Yet, settlement was force by other means. Its purpose, in Shapira’s words, was to build a ‘Jewish infrastructure in Palestine’ so that ‘the balance of power between Jews and Arabs had shifted in favor of the former’ (pp. 121, 133; cf. p. 211). To the call of a Zionist leader on the morrow of Tel Hai that ‘we must be a force in the land’, Shapira adds the caveat: ‘He was not referring to military might but, rather, to power in the sense of demography and colonization’ (p. 113). Yet, Shapira willfully misses the basic point that ‘demography and colonization’ were equally force. Moreover, without the ‘foreign bayonets’ of the British Mandate, the Zionist movement could not have established even a toehold, let alone struck deep roots, in Palestine.51 Toward the end of the 1930s and especially after World War II, a concatenation of events – Britain’s waning commitment to the Balfour Declaration, the escalation of Arab resistance, the strengthening of the Yishuv, etc. – caused a consensus to crystallize within the Zionist movement that the time was ripe to return to the original strategy of conquering Palestine ‘by blood and fire’."
^ Barnett, Michael (2020), Phillips, Andrew; Reus-Smit, Christian, eds., “The Jewish Problem in International Society”, Culture and Order in World Politics (Cambridge University Press): 232–249, doi:10.1017/9781108754613.011, ISBN 978-1-108-48497-8, オリジナルのApril 15, 2021時点におけるアーカイブ。 April 15, 2021閲覧。
^ Kühntopf-Gentz, Michael (1990) (ドイツ語). Nathan Birnbaum: Biographie. Eberhard-Karls-Universität zu Tübingen. p. 39. オリジナルのJuly 7, 2023時点におけるアーカイブ。 July 7, 2023閲覧. "Nathan Birnbaum wird immer wieder als derjenige erwähnt, der die Begriffe "Zionismus" und "zionistisch" eingeführt habe, auch sieht er es selbst so, obwohl er es später bereut und Bedauern darüber äußert, wie die von ihm geprägten Begriffe verwendet werden. Das Wort "zionistisch" erscheint bei Birnbaum zuerst in einem Artikel der "Selbst-Emancipation" vom 1 April 1890: "Es ist zu hoffen, dass die Erkenntnis der Richtigkeit und Durchführbarkeit der zionistischen Idee stets weitere Kreise ziehen und in der Assimilationsepoche anerzogene Vorurteile beseitigen wird”"
^ (ドイツ語) Selbst-Emancipation : Zeitschrift für die nationalen, socialen und politischen Interessen des jüdischen Stammes; Organ der Zionisten : (1.4.1890). 1890 Heft 1 (1.4.1890). Wien. (August 13, 1890). オリジナルのJuly 8, 2023時点におけるアーカイブ。 2023年7月7日閲覧。
^ Pergola, Sergio della (2001). Demography in Israel/Palestine: Trends, Prospects, Policy Implications.
^ Herzl, Theodor (2012) (英語). The Jewish State. Courier Corporation. p. 80. ISBN 978-0-486-11961-8. オリジナルのJanuary 11, 2024時点におけるアーカイブ。 June 9, 2021閲覧. "if all or any of the French Jews protest against this scheme on account of their own "assimilation," my answer is simple: The whole thing does not concern them at all. They are Jewish Frenchmen, well and good! This is a private affair for the Jews alone. The movement towards the organization of the State I am proposing would, of course, harm Jewish Frenchmen no more than it would harm the "assimilated" of other countries. It would, on the contrary, be distinctly to their advantage. For they would no longer be disturbed in their "chromatic function," as Darwin puts it, but would be able to assimilate in peace, because the present Anti-Semitism would have been stopped for ever. They would certainly be credited with being assimilated to the very depths of their souls, if they stayed where they were after the new Jewish State, with its superior institutions, had become a reality. The "assimilated" would profit even more than Christian citizens by the departure of faithful Jews; for they would be rid of the disquieting, incalculable, and unavoidable rivalry of a Jewish proletariat, driven by poverty and political pressure from place to place, from land to land. This floating proletariat would become stationary."
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Nur Masalha (2012). “Chapter 1: Zionism and European Settler-Colonialism”. The Palestine Nakba. Zed Books. ISBN 978-1-84813-973-2 引用エラー: 無効な <ref> タグ; name "Nur Masalha"が異なる内容で複数回定義されています
^ The Jewish State, by Theodor Herzl, (Courier Corporation, 27 Apr 2012), p. 157
^ Lewis, Paul (1991年12月17日). “U.N. Repeals Its '75 Resolution Equating Zionism With Racism” (英語). The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. オリジナルのJanuary 11, 2013時点におけるアーカイブ。 2023年10月8日閲覧。
^ Hirsch 2009 "The work of Jewish race scientists has been the subject of several recent studies (Efron 1994; R. Falk 2006; Hart 2000; Kiefer 1991; Lipphardt 2007; Y. Weiss 2002; see also Doron 1980). As these studies suggest, among Jewish physicians, anthropologists, and other 'men of science' in Central Europe, proponents of the idea that the Jews were a race were found mainly in the ranks of Zionists, as the idea implied a common biological nature of the otherwise geographically, linguistically, and culturally divided Jewish people, and offered scientific 'proof' of the ethno-nationalist myth of common descent (Doron 1980: 404; Y. Weiss 2002: 155). At the same time, many of these proponents agreed that the Jews were suffering a process of 'degeneration, and so their writings advanced the national project as a means of 'regeneration' and 'racial improvement' (R. Falk 2006; Hart 2000: 17)... In the Zionist case, the nation-building project was fused with a cultural project of Westernization. 'Race' was an integral concept in certain versions of nationalist thinking, and in Western identity (Bonnett 2003), albeit in different ways. In the discourse of Zionist men of science, 'race' served different purposes, according to the context in question. In some contexts 'race' was mainly used to establish Jewish unity, while in others it was used to establish diversity and hierarchy among Jews. The latter use was more common in texts which appeared in Palestine. It resulted from the encounter of European Zionists with Eastern Jews, and from the tension between the projects of nation-building and of Westernization in the context of Zionist settlement in the East."
^ Egorova, Yulia (2009). “The proof is in the genes? Jewish responses to DNA research”. Culture and Religion (Informa UK Limited) 10 (2): 159–175. doi:10.1080/14755610903077554. ISSN 1475-5610. https://dro.dur.ac.uk/14438/1/ July 11, 2023閲覧。.
^ ^a ^b Falk, R. (2014). “Genetic markers cannot determine Jewish descent”. Frontiers in Genetics 5 (462): 462. doi:10.3389/fgene.2014.00462. PMC 4301023. PMID 25653666.

[1] Medding, P.Y. (1995). Studies in Contemporary Jewry: XI: Values, Interests, and Identity: Jews and Politics in a Changing World. OUP USA/Institute of Contemporary Jewry, Hebrew University of Jerusalem. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-19-510331-1 March 11, 2019閲覧。

[2] Gans, Chaim (2008) (英語). A Just Zionism: On the Morality of the Jewish State. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195340686.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-986717-2. オリジナルのDecember 27, 2019時点におけるアーカイブ。 March 16, 2019閲覧。

[3] シオニズムは民族主義の一形態として説明されている。^[1] or as a form of ethno-cultural nationalism with civic nationalist components.^[2]

[4] “Zionism and Israel” (英語). pluralism.org. 2024年2月19日閲覧。

[5] Herzl, Theodor Sylvie d'Avigdor訳 (1988) [1896]. “Biography, by Alex Bein”. Der Judenstaat [The Jewish state] (republication ed.). New York: Courier Dover. p. 40. ISBN 978-0-486-25849-2 September 28, 2010閲覧。

[6] “Zionism”. Oxford Dictionary. April 4, 2016時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。June 30, 2016閲覧。

[7] “Zionism | nationalistic movement”. December 25, 2018時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。June 30, 2016閲覧。

[8] Safrai, Zeʾev (2018-05-02), “The Land in Rabbinic Literature” (英語), Seeking out the Land: Land of Israel Traditions in Ancient Jewish, Christian and Samaritan Literature (200 BCE – 400 CE) (Brill): pp. 76–203, ISBN 978-90-04-33482-3, オリジナルのJune 27, 2023時点におけるアーカイブ。 2023年7月6日閲覧。 "The preoccupation of rabbinic literature in all its forms with the Land of Israel is without question intensive and constant. It is no wonder that this literature offers historians of the Land of Israel a wealth of information for the clarification of a wide variety of topics."

[9] Biger, Gideon (2004) (英語). The Boundaries of Modern Palestine, 1840–1947. Routledge. pp. 58–63. ISBN 978-1-135-76652-8. "Unlike the earlier literature that dealt with Palestine's delimitation, the boundaries were not presented according to their historical traditional meaning, but according to the boundaries of the Jewish Eretz Israel that was about to be established there. This approach characterizes all the Zionist publications at the time ... when they came to indicate borders, they preferred the realistic condition and strategic economic needs over an unrealistic dream based on the historic past.' This meant that planners envisaged a future Palestine that controlled all the Jordan's sources, the southern part of the Litanni river in Lebanon, the large cultivatable area east of the Jordan, including the Houran and Gil'ad wheat zone, Mt Hermon, the Yarmuk and Yabok rivers, the Hijaz Railway ..."

[FOOTNOTEMotyl2001604-10] Motyl 2001, p. 604.

[11] Herzl, Theodor Sylvie d'Avigdor訳 (1988). “Biography, by Alex Bein”. Der Judenstaat [The Jewish state] (republication ed.). New York: Courier Dover. p. 40. ISBN 978-0-486-25849-2. オリジナルのJanuary 1, 2014時点におけるアーカイブ。 September 28, 2010閲覧。

[12] "Zionism". Oxford Learner's Dictionaries. Oxford. 2022年11月24日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2023年12月11日閲覧。

[13] "Zionism". Oxford Learner's Dictionaries. Oxford. 2022年11月24日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2023年12月11日閲覧。

[Shillony2012-14] Ben-Ami Shillony (2012). Jews & the Japanese: The Successful Outsiders. Tuttle Publishing. p. 88. ISBN 978-1-4629-0396-2. オリジナルのDecember 25, 2018時点におけるアーカイブ。 November 21, 2017閲覧. "(Zionism) arose in response to and in imitation of the current national movements of Central, Southern, and Eastern Europe"

[LeVineMossberg2014-15] LeVine, Mark; Mossberg, Mathias (2014). One Land, Two States: Israel and Palestine as Parallel States. University of California Press. p. 211. ISBN 978-0-520-95840-1. オリジナルのNovember 17, 2016時点におけるアーカイブ。 March 16, 2016閲覧. "The parents of Zionism were not Judaism and tradition, but antiSemitism and nationalism. The ideals of the French Revolution spread slowly across Europe, finally reaching the Pale of Settlement in the Russian Empire and helping to set off the Haskalah, or Jewish Enlightenment. This engendered a permanent split in the Jewish world, between those who held to a halachic or religious-centric vision of their identity and those who adopted in part the racial rhetoric of the time and made the Jewish people into a nation. This was helped along by the wave of pogroms in Eastern Europe that set two million Jews to flight; most wound up in America, but some chose Palestine. A driving force behind this was the Hovevei Zion movement, which worked from 1882 to develop a Hebrew identity that was distinct from Judaism as a religion."

[Gelvin2014-16] Gelvin, James L. (2014). The Israel-Palestine Conflict: One Hundred Years of War. Cambridge University Press. p. 93. ISBN 978-1-107-47077-4. オリジナルのNovember 17, 2016時点におけるアーカイブ。 March 16, 2016閲覧. "The fact that Palestinian nationalism developed later than Zionism and indeed in response to it does not in any way diminish the legitimacy of Palestinian nationalism or make it less valid than Zionism. All nationalisms arise in opposition to some "other". Why else would there be the need to specify who you are? And all nationalisms are defined by what they oppose. As we have seen, Zionism itself arose in reaction to anti-Semitic and exclusionary nationalist movements in Europe. It would be perverse to judge Zionism as somehow less valid than European anti-Semitism or those nationalisms. Furthermore, Zionism itself was also defined by its opposition to the indigenous Palestinian inhabitants of the region. Both the "conquest of land" and the "conquest of labor" slogans that became central to the dominant strain of Zionism in the Yishuv originated as a result of the Zionist confrontation with the Palestinian "other"."

[RCohen-17] Cohen, Robin (1995). The Cambridge Survey of World Migration. Cambridge University Press. p. 504. ISBN 978-0-521-44405-7. "Zionism Colonize palestine."

[JGelvin-18] Gelvin, James (2007). The Israel–Palestine Conflict: One Hundred Years of War (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 51. ISBN 978-0-521-88835-6. オリジナルのFebruary 20, 2017時点におけるアーカイブ。 February 19, 2016閲覧。

[19] Gamlen, Alan (2019) (英語). Human Geopolitics: States, Emigrants, and the Rise of Diaspora Institutions. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-883349-9. オリジナルのJanuary 11, 2024時点におけるアーカイブ。 March 2, 2021閲覧。

[20] Butenschøn, Nils A. (2006). “Accommodating Conflicting Claims to National Self-determination. The Intractable Case of Israel/Palestine”. International Journal on Minority and Group Rights 13 (2/3): 285–306. doi:10.1163/157181106777909858. ISSN 1385-4879. JSTOR 24675372. オリジナルのMarch 10, 2023時点におけるアーカイブ。 March 10, 2023閲覧. "[T]he Zionist claim to Palestine on behalf of world Jewry as an extra-territorial population was unique, and not supported (as admitted at the time) by established interpretations of the principle of national self-determination, expressed in the Covenant of the League of later versions), and as applied to the other territories with the same status as Palestine ('A' mandate)."

[RanA-21] Aaronson, Ran (1996). “Settlement in Eretz Israel – A Colonialist Enterprise? "Critical" Scholarship and Historical Geography”. Israel Studies (Indiana University Press) 1 (2): 214–229 July 30, 2013閲覧。.

[22] See for example: M. Shahid Alam (2010), Israeli Exceptionalism: The Destabilizing Logic of Zionism Paperback, or "Through the Looking Glass: The Myth of Israeli Exceptionalism" Archived September 21, 2017, at the Wayback Machine., Huffington Post

[23] Nur Masalha (2007). The Bible and Zionism: Invented Traditions, Archaeology and Post-Colonialism in Palestine- Israel. Zed Books. p. 314. ISBN 978-1-84277-761-9. オリジナルのJanuary 12, 2017時点におけるアーカイブ。 February 19, 2016閲覧。

[CurthoysGanguly2007-24] Ned Curthoys; Debjani Ganguly (2007). Edward Said: The Legacy of a Public Intellectual. Academic Monographs. p. 315. ISBN 978-0-522-85357-5. オリジナルのJanuary 12, 2017時点におけるアーカイブ。 May 12, 2013閲覧。

[Kīfūrkiyān2009-25] Nādira Shalhūb Kīfūrkiyān (2009). Militarization and Violence Against Women in Conflict Zones in the Middle East: A Palestinian Case-Study. Cambridge University Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-521-88222-4. オリジナルのMay 2, 2014時点におけるアーカイブ。 May 12, 2013閲覧。

[SchamSalem2005-26] Paul Scham; Walid Salem; Benjamin Pogrund (2005). Shared Histories: A Palestinian-Israeli Dialogue. Left Coast Press. pp. 87–. ISBN 978-1-59874-013-4. オリジナルのJanuary 7, 2014時点におけるアーカイブ。 May 12, 2013閲覧。

[27] See Benny Morris (October 2008). 1948. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-14524-3

[28] Norman G. Finkelstein (2003). Image and reality of the Israel-Palestine conflict. Verso Books. ISBN 978-1-85984-442-7. "To be sure, Jabotinsky freely referred to Zionism as a colonizing enterprise. Mainstream, labor Zionism’s preferred self-image was the morally more edifying and politically less incriminating one of the ‘pioneer’ (halutz)."

[29] Norman G. Finkelstein (2003). Image and reality of the Israel-Palestine conflict. Verso Books. ISBN 978-1-85984-442-7. "The ‘defensive ethos’ was never the operative ideology of mainstream Zionism. From beginning to end, Zionism was a conquest movement. The subtitle of Shapira’s study is ‘The Zionist Resort to Force’. Yet, Zionism did not ‘resort’ to force. Force was – to use Shapira’s apt phrase in her conclusion – ‘inherent in the situation’ (p. 357). Gripped by messianism after the issuance of the Balfour Declaration, the Zionist movement sought to conquer Palestine with a Jewish Legion under the slogan ‘In blood and fire shall Judea rise again’ (pp. 83–98). When these apocalyptic hopes were dispelled and displaced by the mundane reality of the British Mandate, mainstream Zionism made a virtue of necessity and exalted labor as it proceeded to conquer Palestine ‘dunum by dunum, goat by goat’. Force had not been abandoned, however. Shapira falsely counterposes settlement (‘by virtue of labor’) to force (‘by dint of conquest’). Yet, settlement was force by other means. Its purpose, in Shapira’s words, was to build a ‘Jewish infrastructure in Palestine’ so that ‘the balance of power between Jews and Arabs had shifted in favor of the former’ (pp. 121, 133; cf. p. 211). To the call of a Zionist leader on the morrow of Tel Hai that ‘we must be a force in the land’, Shapira adds the caveat: ‘He was not referring to military might but, rather, to power in the sense of demography and colonization’ (p. 113). Yet, Shapira willfully misses the basic point that ‘demography and colonization’ were equally force. Moreover, without the ‘foreign bayonets’ of the British Mandate, the Zionist movement could not have established even a toehold, let alone struck deep roots, in Palestine.51 Toward the end of the 1930s and especially after World War II, a concatenation of events – Britain’s waning commitment to the Balfour Declaration, the escalation of Arab resistance, the strengthening of the Yishuv, etc. – caused a consensus to crystallize within the Zionist movement that the time was ripe to return to the original strategy of conquering Palestine ‘by blood and fire’."

[30] Barnett, Michael (2020), Phillips, Andrew; Reus-Smit, Christian, eds., “The Jewish Problem in International Society”, Culture and Order in World Politics (Cambridge University Press): 232–249, doi:10.1017/9781108754613.011, ISBN 978-1-108-48497-8, オリジナルのApril 15, 2021時点におけるアーカイブ。 April 15, 2021閲覧。

[31] Kühntopf-Gentz, Michael (1990) (ドイツ語). Nathan Birnbaum: Biographie. Eberhard-Karls-Universität zu Tübingen. p. 39. オリジナルのJuly 7, 2023時点におけるアーカイブ。 July 7, 2023閲覧. "Nathan Birnbaum wird immer wieder als derjenige erwähnt, der die Begriffe "Zionismus" und "zionistisch" eingeführt habe, auch sieht er es selbst so, obwohl er es später bereut und Bedauern darüber äußert, wie die von ihm geprägten Begriffe verwendet werden. Das Wort "zionistisch" erscheint bei Birnbaum zuerst in einem Artikel der "Selbst-Emancipation" vom 1 April 1890: "Es ist zu hoffen, dass die Erkenntnis der Richtigkeit und Durchführbarkeit der zionistischen Idee stets weitere Kreise ziehen und in der Assimilationsepoche anerzogene Vorurteile beseitigen wird”"

[32] (ドイツ語) Selbst-Emancipation : Zeitschrift für die nationalen, socialen und politischen Interessen des jüdischen Stammes; Organ der Zionisten : (1.4.1890). 1890 Heft 1 (1.4.1890). Wien. (August 13, 1890). オリジナルのJuly 8, 2023時点におけるアーカイブ。 2023年7月7日閲覧。

[dellapergola-33] Pergola, Sergio della (2001). Demography in Israel/Palestine: Trends, Prospects, Policy Implications.

[34] Herzl, Theodor (2012) (英語). The Jewish State. Courier Corporation. p. 80. ISBN 978-0-486-11961-8. オリジナルのJanuary 11, 2024時点におけるアーカイブ。 June 9, 2021閲覧. "if all or any of the French Jews protest against this scheme on account of their own "assimilation," my answer is simple: The whole thing does not concern them at all. They are Jewish Frenchmen, well and good! This is a private affair for the Jews alone. The movement towards the organization of the State I am proposing would, of course, harm Jewish Frenchmen no more than it would harm the "assimilated" of other countries. It would, on the contrary, be distinctly to their advantage. For they would no longer be disturbed in their "chromatic function," as Darwin puts it, but would be able to assimilate in peace, because the present Anti-Semitism would have been stopped for ever. They would certainly be credited with being assimilated to the very depths of their souls, if they stayed where they were after the new Jewish State, with its superior institutions, had become a reality. The "assimilated" would profit even more than Christian citizens by the departure of faithful Jews; for they would be rid of the disquieting, incalculable, and unavoidable rivalry of a Jewish proletariat, driven by poverty and political pressure from place to place, from land to land. This floating proletariat would become stationary."

[Nur_Masalha-35] Nur Masalha (2012). “Chapter 1: Zionism and European Settler-Colonialism”. The Palestine Nakba. Zed Books. ISBN 978-1-84813-973-2 引用エラー: 無効な <ref> タグ; name "Nur Masalha"が異なる内容で複数回定義されています

[36] The Jewish State, by Theodor Herzl, (Courier Corporation, 27 Apr 2012), p. 157

[37] Lewis, Paul (1991年12月17日). “U.N. Repeals Its '75 Resolution Equating Zionism With Racism” (英語). The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. オリジナルのJanuary 11, 2013時点におけるアーカイブ。 2023年10月8日閲覧。

[Hirsch-38] Hirsch 2009 "The work of Jewish race scientists has been the subject of several recent studies (Efron 1994; R. Falk 2006; Hart 2000; Kiefer 1991; Lipphardt 2007; Y. Weiss 2002; see also Doron 1980). As these studies suggest, among Jewish physicians, anthropologists, and other 'men of science' in Central Europe, proponents of the idea that the Jews were a race were found mainly in the ranks of Zionists, as the idea implied a common biological nature of the otherwise geographically, linguistically, and culturally divided Jewish people, and offered scientific 'proof' of the ethno-nationalist myth of common descent (Doron 1980: 404; Y. Weiss 2002: 155). At the same time, many of these proponents agreed that the Jews were suffering a process of 'degeneration, and so their writings advanced the national project as a means of 'regeneration' and 'racial improvement' (R. Falk 2006; Hart 2000: 17)... In the Zionist case, the nation-building project was fused with a cultural project of Westernization. 'Race' was an integral concept in certain versions of nationalist thinking, and in Western identity (Bonnett 2003), albeit in different ways. In the discourse of Zionist men of science, 'race' served different purposes, according to the context in question. In some contexts 'race' was mainly used to establish Jewish unity, while in others it was used to establish diversity and hierarchy among Jews. The latter use was more common in texts which appeared in Palestine. It resulted from the encounter of European Zionists with Eastern Jews, and from the tension between the projects of nation-building and of Westernization in the context of Zionist settlement in the East."

[39] Egorova, Yulia (2009). “The proof is in the genes? Jewish responses to DNA research”. Culture and Religion (Informa UK Limited) 10 (2): 159–175. doi:10.1080/14755610903077554. ISSN 1475-5610. https://dro.dur.ac.uk/14438/1/ July 11, 2023閲覧。.

[Falk-40] Falk, R. (2014). “Genetic markers cannot determine Jewish descent”. Frontiers in Genetics 5 (462): 462. doi:10.3389/fgene.2014.00462. PMC 4301023. PMID 25653666.

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 '''シオニズム''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|z|aɪ|ə|ˌ|n|ɪ|z|əm}}; {{Lang-he|צִיּוֹנוּת}} {{Transl|he|Tsīyyonūt}}, {{IPA-he|tsijoˈnut|}}; [[シオン]]に由来) は、19世紀に{{仮リンク|ユダヤ人のための祖国|En|Homeland for the Jewish people|label=ユダヤ人のための祖国}}を[[パレスチナ]]に建設するために生まれた[[ナショナリズム]]運動{{Refnest|シオニズムは[[民族主義]]の一形態として説明されている。<ref>{{cite book|last=Medding|first=P.Y.|title=Studies in Contemporary Jewry: XI: Values, Interests, and Identity: Jews and Politics in a Changing World|publisher=OUP USA/Institute of Contemporary Jewry, Hebrew University of Jerusalem|year=1995|isbn=978-0-19-510331-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=22iwFNfIWMwC&pg=PA11 | access-date=March 11, 2019|page=11}}</ref> or as a form of ethno-[[cultural nationalism]] with [[civic nationalist]] components.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195340686.001.0001/acprof-9780195340686|title=A Just Zionism: On the Morality of the Jewish State|last=Gans|first=Chaim|date=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-986717-2|language=en-US|doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195340686.001.0001|access-date=March 16, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191227181827/https://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195340686.001.0001/acprof-9780195340686|archive-date=December 27, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>}} であり<ref>{{Cite web |title=Zionism and Israel |url=https://pluralism.org/zionism-and-israel |access-date=2024-02-19 |website=pluralism.org |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Herzl |first=Theodor |author-link=Theodor Herzl |translator=Sylvie d'Avigdor |title=Der Judenstaat |trans-title=The Jewish state |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3f4RFWkMeWoC |access-date=September 28, 2010 |edition=republication |year=1988 |origyear=1896 |publisher=[[Dover Publications|Courier Dover]] |location=New York |isbn=978-0-486-25849-2 |page=40 |chapter=Biography, by Alex Bein |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3f4RFWkMeWoC&pg=PA40}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/zionism |title=Zionism |website=Oxford Dictionary |access-date=June 30, 2016 |archive-date=April 4, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160404191940/http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/zionism |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Zionism |title=Zionism {{!}} nationalistic movement |access-date=June 30, 2016 |archive-date=December 25, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225204632/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Zionism |url-status=live}}</ref> 、パレスチナは[[ユダヤ文化|ユダヤの伝統]]（英語版）におけるイスラエルの地にほぼ相当する<ref>{{Citation|title=The Land in Rabbinic Literature|last=Safrai|first=Zeʾev|date=2018-05-02|url=https://brill.com/display/book/9789004334823/BP000013.xml|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230627093521/https://brill.com/display/book/9789004334823/BP000013.xml|archive-date=June 27, 2023|work=Seeking out the Land: Land of Israel Traditions in Ancient Jewish, Christian and Samaritan Literature (200 BCE – 400 CE)|publisher=Brill|pages=76–203|isbn=978-90-04-33482-3|language=en|access-date=2023-07-06|url-status=live}} "The preoccupation of rabbinic literature in all its forms with the Land of Israel is without question intensive and constant. It is no wonder that this literature offers historians of the Land of Israel a wealth of information for the clarification of a wide variety of topics."</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Biger |first=Gideon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wUqRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA60 |title=The Boundaries of Modern Palestine, 1840–1947 |year=2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-76652-8 |language=en |quote=Unlike the earlier literature that dealt with Palestine's delimitation, the boundaries were not presented according to their historical traditional meaning, but according to the boundaries of the Jewish Eretz Israel that was about to be established there. This approach characterizes all the Zionist publications at the time ... when they came to indicate borders, they preferred the realistic condition and strategic economic needs over an unrealistic dream based on the historic past.' This meant that planners envisaged a future Palestine that controlled all [[River Jordan|the Jordan]]'s sources, the southern part of the [[Litani River|Litanni river]] in Lebanon, the large cultivatable area east of the Jordan, including the Houran and Gil'ad wheat zone, Mt Hermon, the [[Yarmouk River|Yarmuk]] and [[Yabbok|Yabok]] rivers, the [[Hijaz Railway]] ... |pages=58–63}}</ref>{{sfn|Motyl|2001|p=604}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Herzl |first1=Theodor |author-link1=Theodor Herzl |translator=Sylvie d'Avigdor |title=Der Judenstaat |trans-title=The Jewish state |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3f4RFWkMeWoC |access-date=September 28, 2010 |edition=republication |year=1988 |orig-year=1896 |publisher=[[Dover Publications|Courier Dover]] |location=New York |isbn=978-0-486-25849-2 |page=40 |chapter=Biography, by Alex Bein |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3f4RFWkMeWoC&pg=PA40 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140101195701/http://books.google.com/books?id=3f4RFWkMeWoC |archive-date=January 1, 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref>。[[独立記念日（イスラエル）|近代イスラエル国家の設立]]（英語版）の後、シオニズムはユダヤ人国家としての[[イスラエル|イスラエル国]]の発展と保護を支援するイデオロギーとなった<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/zionism |title=Zionism |encyclopedia=[[Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary|Oxford Learner's Dictionaries]] |publisher=Oxford |access-date=December 11, 2023 |archive-date=November 24, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221124215018/https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/zionism |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/zionism |title=Zionism |encyclopedia=[[Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary|Oxford Learner's Dictionaries]] |publisher=Oxford |access-date=December 11, 2023 |archive-date=November 24, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221124215018/https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/zionism |url-status=live}}</ref>。
-シオニズムは19 世紀後半に{{仮リンク|民族復興運動|En|National revival|label=民族復興運動}}として[[中央ヨーロッパ|中央]]および[[東ヨーロッパ]]で始まった運動であり、[[反ユダヤ主義]]の新たな高まりに対する反応と、[[ハスカーラー]]、すなわちユダヤ教の啓蒙運動の結果として起こった<ref name="Shillony2012">{{Cite book |last=Ben-Ami Shillony |author-link=Ben-Ami Shillony |title=Jews & the Japanese: The Successful Outsiders |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OvzPAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA88 |year=2012 |publisher=Tuttle Publishing |isbn=978-1-4629-0396-2 |page=88 |quote=(Zionism) arose in response to and in imitation of the current national movements of Central, Southern, and Eastern Europe |access-date=November 21, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225204640/https://books.google.com/books?id=OvzPAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA88 |archive-date=December 25, 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="LeVineMossberg2014">{{Cite book |last=LeVine |first=Mark |last2=Mossberg |first2=Mathias |title=One Land, Two States: Israel and Palestine as Parallel States |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vnVAAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA211 |year=2014 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-95840-1 |page=211 |quote=The parents of Zionism were not Judaism and tradition, but antiSemitism and nationalism. The ideals of the [[French Revolution]] spread slowly across Europe, finally reaching the [[Pale of Settlement]] in the [[Russian Empire]] and helping to set off the [[Haskalah]], or Jewish Enlightenment. This engendered a permanent split in the Jewish world, between those who held to a halachic or religious-centric vision of their identity and those who adopted in part the racial rhetoric of the time and made the Jewish people into a nation. This was helped along by the wave of [[pogrom]]s in Eastern Europe that set two million Jews to flight; most wound up in [[United States|America]], but some chose Palestine. A driving force behind this was the [[Hovevei Zion]] movement, which worked from 1882 to develop a Hebrew identity that was distinct from [[Judaism]] as a religion. |access-date=March 16, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161117165546/https://books.google.com/books?id=vnVAAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA211 |archive-date=November 17, 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Gelvin2014">{{Cite book |last=Gelvin |first=James L. |title=The Israel-Palestine Conflict: One Hundred Years of War |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GDaZAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA93 |year=2014 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-47077-4 |page=93 |quote=The fact that [[Palestinian nationalism]] developed later than Zionism and indeed in response to it does not in any way diminish the legitimacy of Palestinian nationalism or make it less valid than Zionism. All nationalisms arise in opposition to some "other". Why else would there be the need to specify who you are? And all nationalisms are defined by what they oppose. As we have seen, Zionism itself arose in reaction to anti-Semitic and exclusionary nationalist movements in Europe. It would be perverse to judge Zionism as somehow less valid than European anti-Semitism or those nationalisms. Furthermore, Zionism itself was also defined by its opposition to the indigenous Palestinian inhabitants of the region. Both the "conquest of land" and the "conquest of labor" slogans that became central to the dominant strain of Zionism in the Yishuv originated as a result of the Zionist confrontation with the Palestinian "other". |access-date=March 16, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161117183517/https://books.google.com/books?id=GDaZAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA93 |archive-date=November 17, 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>。運動が起きてすぐに、多くのシオニズムの指導者は、当時[[オスマン帝国]]の支配下にあったパレスチナにユダヤ人が切望する祖国を建設することが主な目標であると考えた<ref name="RCohen">{{Cite book |last=Cohen |first=Robin |title=The Cambridge Survey of World Migration |year=1995 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgesurveyo00robi/page/504 504] |url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgesurveyo00robi |quote=Zionism Colonize palestine. |isbn=978-0-521-44405-7}}</ref><ref name="JGelvin">{{Cite book |last=Gelvin |first=James |title=The Israel–Palestine Conflict: One Hundred Years of War |year=2007 |edition=2nd |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-88835-6 |page=51 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5FwAT5fx03IC&q=the Basel program colonisation of Palestine&pg=PA52 |access-date=February 19, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170220003633/https://books.google.com/books?id=5FwAT5fx03IC&lpg=PA52&dq=the Basel program colonisation of Palestine&pg=PA52 |archive-date=February 20, 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>。 この建国の過程は、シオニズム運動において「{{仮リンク|離散民の集結（イスラエル）|En|Gathering of Israel|label=離散民の集結}}」（キブツ・ガルヨット (''kibbutz galuyot'')）、すなわちユダヤ人が歴史的な祖国に戻ることによってユダヤ人の脱出と迫害の歴史に終止符を打つ試みとみなされた<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gamlen |first=Alan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1iCWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA57 |title=Human Geopolitics: States, Emigrants, and the Rise of Diaspora Institutions |year=2019 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-883349-9 |language=en |access-date=March 2, 2021 |archive-date=January 11, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240111180739/https://books.google.com/books?id=1iCWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA57#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live}}</ref>。
+シオニズムは19 世紀後半に{{仮リンク|民族復興運動|En|National revival|label=民族復興運動}}として[[中央ヨーロッパ|中央]]および[[東ヨーロッパ]]で始まった運動であり、[[反ユダヤ主義]]の新たな高まりに対する反動と、[[ハスカーラー]]、すなわちユダヤ教の啓蒙運動の結果として起こった<ref name="Shillony2012">{{Cite book |last=Ben-Ami Shillony |author-link=Ben-Ami Shillony |title=Jews & the Japanese: The Successful Outsiders |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OvzPAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA88 |year=2012 |publisher=Tuttle Publishing |isbn=978-1-4629-0396-2 |page=88 |quote=(Zionism) arose in response to and in imitation of the current national movements of Central, Southern, and Eastern Europe |access-date=November 21, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225204640/https://books.google.com/books?id=OvzPAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA88 |archive-date=December 25, 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="LeVineMossberg2014">{{Cite book |last=LeVine |first=Mark |last2=Mossberg |first2=Mathias |title=One Land, Two States: Israel and Palestine as Parallel States |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vnVAAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA211 |year=2014 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-95840-1 |page=211 |quote=The parents of Zionism were not Judaism and tradition, but antiSemitism and nationalism. The ideals of the [[French Revolution]] spread slowly across Europe, finally reaching the [[Pale of Settlement]] in the [[Russian Empire]] and helping to set off the [[Haskalah]], or Jewish Enlightenment. This engendered a permanent split in the Jewish world, between those who held to a halachic or religious-centric vision of their identity and those who adopted in part the racial rhetoric of the time and made the Jewish people into a nation. This was helped along by the wave of [[pogrom]]s in Eastern Europe that set two million Jews to flight; most wound up in [[United States|America]], but some chose Palestine. A driving force behind this was the [[Hovevei Zion]] movement, which worked from 1882 to develop a Hebrew identity that was distinct from [[Judaism]] as a religion. |access-date=March 16, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161117165546/https://books.google.com/books?id=vnVAAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA211 |archive-date=November 17, 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Gelvin2014">{{Cite book |last=Gelvin |first=James L. |title=The Israel-Palestine Conflict: One Hundred Years of War |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GDaZAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA93 |year=2014 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-47077-4 |page=93 |quote=The fact that [[Palestinian nationalism]] developed later than Zionism and indeed in response to it does not in any way diminish the legitimacy of Palestinian nationalism or make it less valid than Zionism. All nationalisms arise in opposition to some "other". Why else would there be the need to specify who you are? And all nationalisms are defined by what they oppose. As we have seen, Zionism itself arose in reaction to anti-Semitic and exclusionary nationalist movements in Europe. It would be perverse to judge Zionism as somehow less valid than European anti-Semitism or those nationalisms. Furthermore, Zionism itself was also defined by its opposition to the indigenous Palestinian inhabitants of the region. Both the "conquest of land" and the "conquest of labor" slogans that became central to the dominant strain of Zionism in the Yishuv originated as a result of the Zionist confrontation with the Palestinian "other". |access-date=March 16, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161117183517/https://books.google.com/books?id=GDaZAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA93 |archive-date=November 17, 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>。運動が起きてすぐに、多くのシオニズムの指導者は、当時[[オスマン帝国]]の支配下にあったパレスチナにユダヤ人が切望する祖国を建設することが主な目標であると考えた<ref name="RCohen">{{Cite book |last=Cohen |first=Robin |title=The Cambridge Survey of World Migration |year=1995 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgesurveyo00robi/page/504 504] |url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgesurveyo00robi |quote=Zionism Colonize palestine. |isbn=978-0-521-44405-7}}</ref><ref name="JGelvin">{{Cite book |last=Gelvin |first=James |title=The Israel–Palestine Conflict: One Hundred Years of War |year=2007 |edition=2nd |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-88835-6 |page=51 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5FwAT5fx03IC&q=the Basel program colonisation of Palestine&pg=PA52 |access-date=February 19, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170220003633/https://books.google.com/books?id=5FwAT5fx03IC&lpg=PA52&dq=the Basel program colonisation of Palestine&pg=PA52 |archive-date=February 20, 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>。 この建国の過程は、シオニズム運動において「{{仮リンク|離散民の集結（イスラエル）|En|Gathering of Israel|label=離散民の集結}}」（キブツ・ガルヨット (''kibbutz galuyot'')）、すなわちユダヤ人が歴史的な祖国に戻ることによってユダヤ人の脱出と迫害の歴史に終止符を打つ試みとみなされた<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gamlen |first=Alan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1iCWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA57 |title=Human Geopolitics: States, Emigrants, and the Rise of Diaspora Institutions |year=2019 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-883349-9 |language=en |access-date=March 2, 2021 |archive-date=January 11, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240111180739/https://books.google.com/books?id=1iCWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA57#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live}}</ref>。
 年から1948年までのシオニズム運動の主な目標は、パレスチナにユダヤ人の祖国の基礎を確立し、それを強化することであった。[[民族自決]]の原則の独自の一形態として<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Butenschøn|first=Nils A.|date=2006|title=Accommodating Conflicting Claims to National Self-determination. The Intractable Case of Israel/Palestine|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24675372|journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights|volume=13|issue=2/3|pages=285–306|doi=10.1163/157181106777909858|issn=1385-4879|jstor=24675372|quote=[T]he Zionist claim to Palestine on behalf of world Jewry as an extra-territorial population was unique, and not supported (as admitted at the time) by established interpretations of the principle of national self-determination, expressed in the Covenant of the League of later versions), and as applied to the other territories with the same status as Palestine ('A' mandate).|access-date=March 10, 2023|archive-date=March 10, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230310045651/https://www.jstor.org/stable/24675372|url-status=live}}</ref>、1884 年に[[ホヴェヴェイ・ツィヨン]] (「シオンの恋人たち」の意) が結成され、1897年に最初の[[シオニスト会議]]が組織された。19世紀後半から20世紀初頭にかけて多くのユダヤ人が初代オスマン帝国と後の[[イギリス委任統治領パレスチナ|委任統治領パレスチナ]]に移住し、それと同時に世界的な承認と支持を得るための外交努力も行われた。1948年のイスラエル建国以来、シオニズムはイスラエル国に代わって国を擁護し、国の存続と安全に対する脅威に対処し続けている。
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 年、[[国際連合総会]]はシオニズムを「人種差別と人種差別の一形態」と指定する{{仮リンク|国際連合総会決議3379|En|United Nations General Assembly Resolution 3379|label=国連総会決議3379}}を可決した。 イスラエルは、1991年[[マドリード]]で開催する[[中東和平会議]]へイスラエルが参加する条件として、決議3379に含まれる決議を取り消すことを規定した{{仮リンク|国際連合総会決議46/48|En|United Nations General Assembly Resolution 3379#Revocation|label=国連総会決議46/48}}の可決を条件とし、決議46/48により決議3379は1991年に破棄された<ref>{{Cite news |last=Lewis |first=Paul |date=1991-12-17 |title=U.N. Repeals Its '75 Resolution Equating Zionism With Racism |language=en-US |newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/12/17/world/un-repeals-its-75-resolution-equating-zionism-with-racism.html |access-date=2023-10-08 |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=January 11, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130111211632/http://www.nytimes.com/1991/12/17/world/un-repeals-its-75-resolution-equating-zionism-with-racism.html}}</ref>。
+== シオニズムの信念 ==
+=== 民族的単一性と聖書に記されたユダヤ人の子孫 ===
+初期のシオニストは、ユダヤ人は人種であるという考えを支持するユダヤ人から主に構成されており、人種の共通性は「共通の血統を有するという{{仮リンク|建国神話|En|National myth|label=民族ナショナリズム的な神話}}の科学的な『証拠』となる」と考えられていた<ref name="Hirsch">{{Harvnb|Hirsch|2009}} "The work of Jewish race scientists has been the subject of several recent studies (Efron 1994; R. Falk 2006; Hart 2000; Kiefer 1991; Lipphardt 2007; Y. Weiss 2002; see also Doron 1980). As these studies suggest, among Jewish physicians, anthropologists, and other 'men of science' in Central Europe, proponents of the idea that the Jews were a race were found mainly in the ranks of Zionists, as the idea implied a common biological nature of the otherwise geographically, linguistically, and culturally divided Jewish people, and offered scientific 'proof' of the ethno-nationalist myth of common descent (Doron 1980: 404; Y. Weiss 2002: 155). At the same time, many of these proponents agreed that the Jews were suffering a process of 'degeneration, and so their writings advanced the national project as a means of 'regeneration' and 'racial improvement' (R. Falk 2006; Hart 2000: 17)... In the Zionist case, the nation-building project was fused with a cultural project of Westernization. 'Race' was an integral concept in certain versions of nationalist thinking, and in Western identity (Bonnett 2003), albeit in different ways. In the discourse of Zionist men of science, 'race' served different purposes, according to the context in question. In some contexts 'race' was mainly used to establish Jewish unity, while in others it was used to establish diversity and hierarchy among Jews. The latter use was more common in texts which appeared in Palestine. It resulted from the encounter of European Zionists with Eastern Jews, and from the tension between the projects of nation-building and of Westernization in the context of Zionist settlement in the East."</ref>。シオニストによるナショナリズム運動は、ドイツの人種的ナショナリズムである[[フェルキッシュ]]理論に基づき、共通の血統を持つ人々は分離を求めて独自の国家を形成すべきであるというものであった<ref name="Nur Masalha">{{Cite book |last=Nur Masalha |title=The Palestine Nakba |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=px1jDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA |year=2012 |publisher=Zed Books |isbn=978-1-84813-973-2 |chapter=Chapter 1: Zionism and European Settler-Colonialism}}<cite class="citation book cs1" data-ve-ignore="true" id="CITEREFNur_Masalha2012">Nur Masalha (2012). </cite></ref>。 この「ユダヤ人のアイデンティティの人種化」はシオニズム創始者のレトリックによるものであり、元はヨーロッパの反ユダヤ主義に対する反動だった<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Egorova|first=Yulia|year=2009|title=The proof is in the genes? Jewish responses to DNA research|url=https://dro.dur.ac.uk/14438/1/|journal=Culture and Religion|volume=10|issue=2|pages=159–175|publisher=Informa UK Limited|accessdate=July 11, 2023|doi=10.1080/14755610903077554|issn=1475-5610}}</ref>。遺伝学者の{{仮リンク|ラファエル・フォーク|En|Raphael Falk (geneticist)|label=ラファエル・フォーク}}によれば、すでに1870年代初頭には、啓蒙主義の時代とロマン主義の時代に統合され同化されたユダヤ人コミュニティの間で主に文化的な視点があったのとは対照的に、「シオニストになる者たちは、ユダヤ人は単に文化的または宗教的存在の一員であるだけでなく、一体的な生物学的存在の一員でもあることを強調した」<ref name="Falk">{{Cite journal|last=Falk|first=R.|author-link=Raphael Falk (geneticist)|date=2014|title=Genetic markers cannot determine Jewish descent|journal=Frontiers in Genetics|volume=5|issue=462|page=462|doi=10.3389/fgene.2014.00462|pmc=4301023|pmid=25653666}}</ref>。このユダヤ人らしさの再概念化は、何世紀にもわたる宗教的かつ社会文化的集団としてのユダヤ人の概念とは対照的に、ユダヤ人コミュニティの「{{仮リンク|Volk (ドイツ語)|En|Volk|label=Volk}}」（ドイツ語で「人」の意）を国家的人種として位置づけた<ref name="Falk" />。ユダヤ人歴史家の[[ハインリヒ・グレーツ]]とサイモン・ドゥブノウは、ナショナリストによるプロジェクトとしてのシオニズムの創設に大きく貢献したと考えられている。彼らは、国家のアイデンティティと意識を再構築する際に、宗教的なユダヤの起源のと非ユダヤ人の文献を利用した。この新しいユダヤ人の歴史学は、伝統的なユダヤ人の集団的記憶から切り離され、時には対立することもあった<ref name="Nur Masalha" />。
 == 歴史 ==