Periode Afrika basah

Selama Periode Afrika basah, sebagian besar Afrika Utara ditutupi oleh rumput, pohon, dan danau; dan wilayah Sahara bukanlah gurun pasir.

Periode Afrika basah (African humid period), disingkat PAB, adalah suatu periodisasi cuaca dari jaman Pleistosen akhir hingga Holosen di mana iklim di Afrika bagian utara lebih basah daripada saat ini. Pada periode itu sebagian besar Gurun Sahara masih ditutup oleh rerumputan dan pohon, serta terdapat berbagai sungai dan danau. Penyebabnya antara lain menguatnya muson Afrika.

Periode Afrika basah dimulai sekitar 14.600–14.500 tahun lampau pada masa akhir Zaman Es. Danau Chad terbentuk atau meluas, gletser es menutupi Gunung Kilimanjaro, dan gurun pasir menyusut. Lalu terjadi dua fluktuasi cuaca kering (menurunnya temperatur bumi), yakni pada kurun dryas terakhir dan peristiwa 8,2 kilo-warsa di mana temperatur bumi menurun drastis. Periode Afrika basah berakhir 6.000–5.000 tahun lampau, atau selama periode dingin Osilasi Piora. Meski beberapa fakta menunjukan bahwa hal ini terjadi pada 5.500 tahun lampau, namun di beberapa tempat seperti di Sahel, Jazirah Arab, dan Afrika Timur, Periode Afrika basah berakhir sekitar peristiwa 4,2 kilo-warsa, saat kekeringan global melanda.

Periode Afrika basah (PAB) ditandai dengan penyebaran penduduk dan luasnya area yang dihuni manusia di wilayah Gurun Sahara dan Gurun Arab, dan berdampak positif pada perkembangan budaya di Afrika, seperti lahirnya peradaban Mesir Kuno. Orang-orang di Sahara bukan saja hidup sebagai pemburu-pengumpul tetapi juga melakukan domestifikasi sapi, kambing, dan domba. PAB menyisakan beberapa peninggalan seperti artefak perahu tertua di dunia, dan lukisan-lukisan gua seperti di Gua Perenang dan di Pegunungan Acacus. Ketika periode basah berakhir, manusia berangsur-angsur meninggalkan tempat tinggal mereka yang kini menjadi gurun; mereka umumnya bermigrasi ke tempat-tempa basah seperti Lembah Nil dan Lembah Mesopotamia.

Terminologi

Periode basah atau lembap di Afrika/Sahara umumnya disebut sebagai "Periode Afrika basah", di samping beberapa periodisasi basah/kering yang telah ditetapkan untuk wilayah Afrika Tengah. Secara umum, jenis fluktuasi iklim basah/kering ini masing-masing dikenal sebagai pluvial dan interpluvial. Namun karena PAB tidak berlaku di seluruh benua Afrika, Williams et al. 2019 merekomendasikan agar istilah tersebut diubah, dan beberapa peneliti telah mengajukan istilah "periode Afrika Utara basah".

Istilah lain yang digunakan adalah "Periode Holosen Afrika-Basah", atau kerap disingkat "Periode Holosen Basah", yang mencakup sebagian wilayah Afrika serta Arab dan Asia; "episode basah awal dan pertengahan Holosen"; "Holosene Pluvial"; "Fase Basah Holosen"; "Kibangien A" di Afrika Tengah; "Makalian" untuk periode Neolitik di Sudan utara; "Fase Basah Nabtian" atau "periode Nabtian" untuk periode basah 14.000–6.000 di sepanjang Mediterania Timur dan Levant ; "Neolitik Pluvial"; "Neolitik Subpluvial"; "Neolitik fase basah"; "Nouakchottien" di Sahara Barat 6.500–4.000 tahun lampau; "Subpluvial II" dan "Tchadien" di Sahara Tengah pada 14.000–7.500 tahun lampau.

Istilah "Léopoldvillien" dan Ogolien telah diterapkan pada periode kering dalam Glasial Maksimum Terakhir, yang terakhir setara dengan "Kanemian"; "Periode kering Kanemian" mengacu pada periode kering antara 20.000 dan 13.000 tahun lampau untuk daerah Danau Chad.

Penyebab

Periode Afrika basah disebabkan oleh muson Afrika Barat yang lebih kuat yang didikte oleh perubahan radiasi matahari dan umpan balik albedo. Hal-hal tersebut menyebabkan peningkatan uap air dari Atlantik khatulistiwa ke Afrika Barat, serta dari Atlantik Utara dan Laut Mediterania ke pantai Mediterania Afrika. Terdapat interaksi yang kompleks antara sirkulasi atmosfer ekstratropis dan antara uap air yang berasal dari Samudra Atlantik dan Samudra Hindia, dan overlap antara area yang basah oleh muson Afrika dan area yang basah oleh siklon ekstratropis. Penyebabnya antara lain: perubahan orbital bumi, umpan-balik Albedo, perubahan zona konvergensi intertropis, dan perubahan curah hujan di Afrika Timur.

Perubahan orbital bumi

Grafik siklus Milankovich selama satu juta tahun terakhir

Periode Afrika basah terjadi karena adanya peningkatan insolasi musim panas di belahan bumi utara. Akibat adanya presesi (perubahan orientasi sumbu rotasi), berdampak pada perubahan musim panas. Antara 11.000 hingga 10.000 tahun lampau, bumi melewati perihelion pada saat titik balik matahari musim panas, sehingga meningkatkan jumlah radiasi matahari sekitar 8%, mengakibatkan muson Afrika menjadi lebih kuat hingga menjangkau lebih jauh ke utara. Antara 15.000 dan 5.000 tahun lampau, insolasi musim panas setidaknya 4% lebih tinggi daripada hari ini. Kemiringan sumbu (oblikuital) juga menurun selama Holosen, tetapi dampak dari perubahan oblikuital terhadap perubahan, terutama pada garis lintang tinggi dan muson, masih belum diketahui.

Saat memasuki musim panas, daratan Afrika Utara akan menerim radiasi matahari lebih kuat daripada lautan di sekitarnya, sehingga membentuk daerah bertekanan rendah yang akan menarik udara lembap dan curah hujan dari Samudera Atlantik. Dengan adanya insolasi musim panas, mekanisme ini akan semakin menguat sehingga menimbulkan dorongan muson Afrika yang juga lebih kuat hingga ke utara, bahkan bisa menjangkau wilayah subtropis.

Oblikuital dan presesi merupakan dua variabel utama siklus Milankovich; bukan saja menentukan mula dan akhir zaman es, tetapi juga bertanggung jawab atas variasi kekuatan muson. Perlu dicatat bahwa muson belahan bumi selatan memiliki respons yang berlawanan dengan muson belahan bumi utara terhadap perubahan presesi, karena perubahan insolasinya terbalik bagi belahan bumi selatan.

Umpan-balik Albedo

Berdasakan pemodelan, perubahan orbital tidak serta merta dapat meningkatkan intensitas curah hujan secara signifikan kecuali perubahan permukaan bumi turut diperhitungkan, karena akan menentukan rasio antara radiasi matahari yang menerpa bumi dengan radiasi yang dipantulkannya, atau dikenal sebagai umpan-balik (feedback) Albedo. Dalam kasus PAB, perluasan vegetasi merupakan faktor penting dalam peningkatan curah hujan, baik secara intensitas maupun luasannya.

Muson yang menguat akiban perubahan oblikuital dan presesi, membuat curah hujan meningkat; hal ini berdampak positif pada meningkatnya vegetasi; selanjutnya radiasi matahari akan lebih banya diserap vegetasi (umpan-balik Albedo), sekaligus membantu menahan evaporasi air sepanjang musim panas; dan sebagai dampaknya, tersedia cukup banyak cadangan air untuk musim hujan. Perluasan vegetasi juga mengurangi polusi debu gurun pasir dan berdampak pada iklim lokal karena mengurangi pantulan radiasi matahari dan lebih efisien dalam menginduksi presipitasi.

Cadangan air pada pepohonan dan permukaan tanah juga menambah lebih banyak uap air di musim hujan (evapotranspirasi), tetapi dampak evapotranspirasi ini kurang kentara dibandingkan efek Albedo. Fluks panas di dalam tanah dan penguapan air juga dipengaruhi oleh luasan vegetasi. Hal lain yang perlu dipertimbangkan adalah perubahan curah hujan keseluruhan di samping curah hujan musiman (yang dipengaruhi panjang-pendeknya musim kemarau); efek pemupukan dari vegetasi yang mati; serta jumlah karbon dioksida di atmosfer, mengingat vegetasi membutuhkan konsentrasi CO₂ yang cukup.

Zona konvergensi angin intra-tropis

Selama musim panas, wilayah ekstra-tropis di utara akan lebih hangat sehingga dapat menarik zona konvergensi angin intra-tropis (ZKAIT) lebih ke utara. Perubahan orbital dan melemahnya angin pasat juga turut membuat permukaan Laut Mediterania di sebelah utara Afrika menjadi lebih hangat; selain mendorong ZKAIT lebih ke utara, juga meningkatkan gradien kelembapan antara daratan dan lautan. Dalam hal ini terdapat dua gradien perbedaan suhu, yang sudah terjadi sejak musim semi, turut mendorong pergeseran ini. Pertama, antara Samudra Atlantik yang lebih dingin dengan benua Afrika yang sudah menghangat; kedua, antara garis lintang 10° di utara yang lebih hangat dengan dan garis lintang 10° selatan yang lebih dingin. Pergeseran ZKAIT ke utara berdampak positif pada kondensasi uap air di atmosfer (presipitasi), khususnya di Afrika Utara. Adapun untuk wilayah Afrika Timur, perubahan ini memiliki pengaruh yang relatif kecil terhadap perubahan curah hujan, dan pengaruhnya di Jazirah Arab masih diperdebatkan.

Perubahan curah hujan di Afrika Timur

Periode Afrika basah di Afrika Timur tampaknya dipicu mekanisme yang berbeda dibandingkan dengan yang terjadi di Afrika Utara. Di antara mekanisme yang diajukan adalah penurunan curah hujan musiman akibat presipitasi musim kemarau yang naik, panjang-pendeknya musim kemarau dan intensitas curah hujan, serta peningkatan aliran uap air dari Samudra Atlantik dan Samudra Hindia. Bahwa Afrika Timur mengalami Periode Afrika basah (PAB), tidaklah diragukan lagi; namun faktor-faktor yang berkontribusi di wilayah tersebut tidak semuanya beroperasi secara bersamaan selama PAB.

Berlangsungnya Afrika basah

Vegetasi Afrika selama Glasial Maksimum Terakhir

Periode Afrika basah (PAB) terjadi pada akhir jaman Pleistosen akhir hinggaawal-pertengahan Holosen, yang ditandai dengan peningkatan curah hujan di Afrika Utara dan Afrika Barat yang disebabkan migrasi sabuk hujan tropis ke utara.

Pra-PAB, selama jaman Es Terakhir, Sahara dan Sahel sangat lah kering dengan curah hujan yang lebih rendah dari hari ini sebagaimana tercermin dari luasnya lapisan bukit pasir dan ketinggian air di danau pada jaman itu. Luas Sahara memanjang 500–800 kilometer (310–500 mi) lebih jauh ke selatan dengan perbedaan garis lintang 5°. Bukit pasir hampir mencapai khatulistiwa, dan hutan hujan jauh mundur ke selatan.

Fase Awal

Akhir dari kekeringan akibat Zaman Es terjadi antara 17.000 dan 11.000 tahun lampau; dengan perubahan awal tercatat di pegunungan Sahara pada 18.500 tahun lampau, di Afrika Selatan dan Afrika Tengah, masing-masing mulai 17.000 dan 17.500 tahun lampau, sementara sekitar wilayah Danau Malawi pada 10.000 tahun lampau.

Meningkatnya tinggi permukaan air danau tercatat di Pegunungan Jebel antara 15.000 dan 14.000 tahun lampau. Sekitar 14.500 tahun lampau, danau-danau mulai muncul di daerah-daerah gersang.

Fase Puncak

Periode basah dimulai sekitar 15.000 tahun lampau hingga 14.500 tahun lampau. Permulaan periode basah terjadi serentak di hampir seluruh wilayah Afrika Utara dan Afrika Tropis, yang dampaknya terlihat hingga Santo Antão di Tanjung Verde. Di Jazirah Arab, periode basah secara gradual bergerak ke utara dalam masa 2000 tahun lebih lambat.

Pada 15.000–14.500 tahun lampau, Danau Victoria terbentuk dan meluap; Danau Albert juga meluap ke Sungai Nil Putih; dan begitu pula Danau Tana ke Sungai Nil Biru. Sungai Nil Putih membanjiri sebagian dasnya dan menyambung kembali ke Sungai Nil utama.

Di wilayah Mesir terjadi banjir yang meluas akibat "Sungai Nil Liar"; dan periode "Nil Liar" ini menyebabkan banjir terbesar yang tercatat dalam sejarah. Terjadi lebih awal, yakni pada 17.000–16.800 tahun lampau, lelehan gletser membasahi Ethiopia sehingga mungkin telah menyebabkan peningkatan aliran air dan sedimen di Sungai Nil. Di Afrika Timur, permukaan air danau mulai meningkat sekitar 15.500/15.000 hingga 12.000 tahun lampau; seperti meluapnya Danau Kivu ke Danau Tanganyika sekitar 10.500 tahun lampau.

Fase Akhir

Periode Afrika basah berakhir sekitar 6.000–5.000 tahun lampau; dan kurun 5.500 tahun lampau umumnya digunakan. Setelah menurunnya vegetasi, Sahara menjadi tandus dan dikuasai gurun pasir. Erosi angin meningkat di Afrika utara, dan ekspor debu dari gurun yang sekarang dan dari danau yang mengering seperti Basin Bodele terus bertambah dan menjadi produsen sumber debu terbesar di Bumi saat ini. Danau-danau mengering, vegetasi menghilang, dan masyarakat menetap digantikan oleh budaya nomaden. Transisi dari "Sahara Hijau" ke "Sahara Kering" saat ini dianggap sebagai transisi lingkungan terbesar; dan hari ini hampir tidak ada hujan yang turun di wilayah tersebut. Akhir dan awal PAB dapat dianggap sebagai "krisis iklim" di Sahara, mengingat dampaknya yang kuat dan berkepanjangan.

Periode dingin Osilasi Piora di Pegunungan Alpen bertepatan dengan akhir PAB; dan periode 5.600–5.000 tahun lampau ditandai oleh pendinginan yang meluas dan perubahan curah hujan yang lebih bervariasi di seluruh dunia dan kemungkinan didorong oleh perubahan aktivitas matahari dan parameter orbit. Beberapa perubahan iklim mungkin meluas hingga Australia, Amerika Tengah dan ke Amerika Selatan.

Perubahan besar lingkungan pan-tropis terjadi sekitar 4.000 tahun lampau. Perubahan ini disertai dengan runtuhnya peradaban kuno, kekeringan parah di Afrika, Asia dan Timur Tengah, dan susutnya gletser di Gunung Kilimanjaro dan Gunung Kenya.

• Sahara dan Sahel
• Afrika Timur dan Jazirah Arabia
• Mediterania
• Afrika Barat (Wilayah Tropis)
• Afrika Tengah
• Afrika selatan Katulistiwa

Fluktuasi kelembapan

Fluktuasi suhu di Greenland dari masa sekarang hingga 17.000 tahun lampau.

Fluktuasi curah hujan terjadi selama akhir Zaman Es dan Holosen. Selama kurun Driyas Terkini, pada 12.500–11.500 tahun lampau, suhu di Atlantik Utara dan Eropa kembali lebih dingin sehingga angin muson Afrika melemah dan kekeringan terjadi di semua wilayah PAB, termasuk Afrika Timur, di mana permukaan air danau turun di banyak tempat, seperti terjadi di Afrika Selatan dan Afrika Barat. Interval kering juga terdeteksi hingga ke India dan Mediterania, di mana aktivitas bukit pasir banyak terbentuk di Negev. Namun di penghujung Driyas Terkini, curah hujan kembali meningkat dan diiringi limpasan sungai dan kenaikan muka air danau, yang diawali di daerah utara Afrika dan perlahan-lahan diikuti oleh wilayah di selatan katulistiwa.

Fluktuasi kembali terjadi di sekitar peristiwa 8,2 kilowarsa yang memisahkan fase Greenlandian dan Northgrippian dari era Holosen. yang melanda seluruh Afrika Timur dan Afrika Utara sebagaimana terekam dengan menurunnya muka air danau. Fase kekeringan ini bertepatan dengan pendinginan di Atlantik Utara dan daratan sekitarnya, seperti Greenland. Peristiwa 8,2 kilowarsa memang terjadi secara global, di mana terjadi pendinginan di seluruh dunia, sebagaimana juga terekam di Maghreb, yang dikaitkan dengan transisi budaya Kapsian (bahasa Arab: قبصية, translit. qibsiyah), juga perubahan budaya lain di Sahara maupun di Mediterania. Episode ini tampaknya disebabkan oleh pengeringan danau-danau yang dibendung es di Amerika Utara meskipun diduga berasal dari lintang rendah.

Fluktuasi kering-basah lainnya juga terjadi pada 9.500–9.000 tahun lampau dan 7.400–6.800 tahun lampau, serta sekitar 10.200, 6.600, dan 6.000 tahun lampau; yang umumnya disertai dengan penurunan kepadatan populasi di beberapa bagian Sahara. Beberapa periode kering lainnya tercatat di Mesir pada 9.400–9.300, 8.800–8.600, 7.100–6.900 dan 6.100–5.900 tahun lampau. Durasi dan tingkat keparahan peristiwa kekeringan sulit untuk direkonstruksi dan dampak peristiwa seperti Dryas Terkini bersifat heterogen bahkan di antara daerah yang berdekatan. Selama periode kering, manusia mungkin melakukan migrasi ke sumber-sumber air yang masih ada, dan beberapa perubahan budaya di Sahara dikaitkan dengan fluktuasi periode kering ini. Selain fluktuasi kekeringan, mundurnya periode lembap ke selatan mungkin telah berlangsung setelah 8.000 tahun lampau, dengan kekeringan besar terjadi sekitar 7.800 tahun lampau.

Dampak Afrika basah

Vegetasi dan air pada masa Holosen (atas) dan masa Eemian (bawah).

Periode Afrika basah meliputi wilayah Sahara dan meluas hingga ke timur, Afrika tenggara dan Afrika khatulistiwa. Secara umum, vegetasi dan hutan meluas di seluruh benua Afrika. Selain itu debit sungai meningkat dan berbagai danau terbentuk.

Debit Sungai Kongo, Sungai Niger, Sungai Nil, Sungai Ntem, Sungai Rufiji, dan Sungai Sanaga meningkat. Limpasan sungai-sungai di Aljazair, Afrika khatulistiwa, Afrika timur laut, dan Sahara barat juga lebih besar. Perubahan morfologi sistem sungai dan dataran aluvialnya terjadi sebagai respons terhadap peningkatan debit, dan dasar Sungai Senegal semakin melebar, menembus bukit pasir dan bermuara ke Samudra Atlantik.

Episode basah serupa terjadi di Amerika tropis, Cina, Asia, India, wilayah Makran, Timur Tengah dan Semenanjung Arab dan tampaknya berhubungan dengan gaya orbit yang sama dengan PAB. Episode muson awal Holosen meluas hingga Gurun Mojave di Amerika Utara. Sebaliknya, episode yang lebih kering tercatat dari sebagian besar Amerika Selatan di mana Danau Titicaca, Danau Junin, debit Sungai Amazon dan ketersediaan air di Atacama lebih rendah.

Flora dan Fauna di Sahara

Selama periode Afrika basah, danau, sungai, rawa-rawa banyak ditemukan di Sahara, demikian pula berbagai vegetasi menutupi daratan Sahara dan Sahel sehingga terbentuk suatu "Sahara Hijau" yang tidak lagi ditemukan di era modern. Bukti-bukti fisik meliputi data serbuk sari, situs arkeologi, serta bukti aktivitas fauna seperti diatom, mamalia, ostracoda, reptil dan siput, lembah sungai yang terkubur, tikar mikrob yang kaya, batu lumpur, evaporit serta travertine dan tufa yang mengendap di lingkungan bawah air. Iklim gurun Sahara tidak sepenuhnya homogen; bagian tengah-timur lebih kering daripada bagian barat dan tengah dan gurun di Libya masih tetap gurun, meskipun tidak lagi berupa gurun murni tetapi memiliki iklim semi-kering.

Tutupan vegetasi meliputi hampir seluruh Sahara, yang berupa padang rumput terbuka dengan semak dan pohon. Secara umum, tutupan vegetasi mencapai wilayah utara, di Afrika Barat hingga 27°–30° lintang utara dan di Sahel sekitar 23° lintang utara, adapun wilayah Sahara ke selatan dihuni oleh tanaman yang saat ini sering ditemukan sekitar 400–600 km. Penyebaran vegetasi ke utara membutuhkan waktu dan beberapa tanaman tertentu bergerak lebih cepat daripada yang lain. Tanaman yang memiliki kemampuan fiksasi karbon C3 lebih banyak ditemukan. Kebakaran semak mengikuti perubahan ini; di mana perluasan vegetasi di wilayah gurun menjadi suluh untuk terjadinya kebakaran, sementara di wilayah sabana peningkatan prevalensi vegetasi berkayu mengurangi potensi kebakaran.

Sabana masa kini di Taman Nasional Tarangire, Tanzania.

Bentang alam selama PAB digambarkan sebagai gabungan antara berbagai jenis vegetasi yang berasal dari semi-gurun dan lembab, di mana hutan dan tumbuhan dari daerah tropis hujan terkonsentrasi di sekitar danau dan sungai. Tidak ada perpindahan tumbuhan Mediterania ke selatan selama masa Holosen dan suhu dingin di Pegunungan Tibesti diduga telah membatasi perluasan tumbuhan tropis. Data serbuk sari sering menunjukkan dominasi rerumputan di atas lapukan pohon tropis hujan. Pohon Lophira alata dan lainnya mungkin telah menyebar keluar dari hutan Afrika selama periode PAB, dan tanaman Lactuca mungkin telah terpecah menjadi dua spesies di bawah pengaruh PAB dan perubahan iklim lainnya di Afrika selama Holosen.

Berbagai fosil yang ditemukan merekam perubahan fauna di Sahara. Fosil yang umum ditemukan adalah antelop, babon, tikus tebu, lele, kerang, burung kormoran, buaya, gajah, katak, rusa, jerapah, hartebeest, kelinci, kuda nil, moluska, pelikan, badak, elang, ular, tilapia, kodok, kura-kura dan berbagai hewan lainnya, dan di Mesir ada kerbau, hyena tutul, babi hutan, rusa kutub dan kuda zebra. Burung yang sekarang tidak ditemukan termasuk gagak berleher coklat, coot, moorhen biasa, grebe jambul, ibis mengkilap, elang berkaki panjang, merpati karang, angsa bersayap pacu dan bebek berumbai. Kawanan mamalia besar hidup di Sahara. Beberapa hewan berkembang biak di seluruh wilayah, sementara yang lain terbatas pada tempat-tempat dengan konsetrasi air yang banyak. Periode basah di Sahara memungkinkan beberapa spesies melintasi gurun yang sekarang. Peralihan padang rumput terbuka menjadi hutan pada awal PAB menjelaskan penurunan populasi beberapa spesies seperti cheetah pada awal periode lembab.

1. Danau dan sungai di Sahara
2. Masayarakat domestik di Sahara
3. Jazirah Arabia
4. Afrika Timur
5. Hutan Hujan di Afrika
6. Levant dan Mediterania
7. Afrika selatan Katulistiwa

Lihat juga

• Gurun Sahara
• Siklus Milankovitch
• Peristiwa 4,2 kilowarsa
• Peristiwa 8,2 kilowarsa

Referensi

Sumber

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