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Polling for United States presidential elections

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Chart of Democratic-candidate lead over Republican candidate in final poll and results by year, 1936 to 2016

Gallup was the first polling organization to conduct accurate opinion polling for United States presidential elections.[1][2] Gallup polling has often been accurate in predicting the outcome of presidential elections and the margin of victory for the winner.[3] However, it missed some close elections: 1948, 1976 and 2004, the popular vote in 2000, and the likely-voter numbers in 2012.[3] The month section in the tables represents the month in which the opinion poll was conducted. D represents the Democratic Party, and R represents the Republican Party. Third parties, such as the Dixiecrats and the Reform Party, were included in some polls.[4]

1936

[edit]
Main article: Nationwide opinion polling for the 1936 United States presidential election
1936 Presidential Election Polls
1936[4]
Month Franklin D. Roosevelt (D) % Alf Landon (R) %
July 49% 45%
August 49% 45%
49% 45%
49% 44%
September 49% 45%
50% 44%
October 51% 44%
51% 44%
56% 44%
Actual result 60.80% 36.54%
Difference between actual result and final poll 4.80% -7.46%

After predicting the winners of the previous five elections, The Literary Digest (based on cards mailed in by its readers) predicted that Alf Landon would win by a large margin. George Gallup predicted a Roosevelt win, based on statistical random sampling within 1.1 percent of the Literary Digest results.

The accuracy of Gallup's forecasts indicated the value of modern statistical methods; according to data collected in the Gallup poll, the Literary Digest poll failed primarily due to non-response bias (Roosevelt won 69 percent of Literary Digest readers who did not participate in the poll) rather than selection bias as commonly believed. Roosevelt won 57 percent of Literary Digest readers who received the poll.[5] Roosevelt won in the largest landslide since the uncontested 1820 election, winning every state except Maine and Vermont, since his New Deal programs were popular with the American people (apart from the respondents to the Literary Digest poll). Although Landon said that the New Deal was costly and ineffective and Roosevelt was slowly molding the United States into a dictatorship, his attacks gained little traction.[6]

1940

[edit]
Main article: Nationwide opinion polling for the 1940 United States presidential election
1940 Presidential Polling
1940[4]
Month Franklin D. Roosevelt (D) % Wendell Willkie (R)%
July 48% 42%
44% 43%
August 45% 43%
46% 44%
September 49% 40%
October 50% 40%
51% 42%
52% 48%
Actual result 54.72% 44.77%
Difference between actual result and final poll 2.72% -3.23%

Throughout his campaign, Roosevelt promised to continue the New Deal and not bring the United States into any new wars if he was given another term. Willkie unsuccessfully attacked Roosevelt for seeking a third term and accused him of trying to turn the United States into a dictatorship by refusing to leave office. Roosevelt led in all polls, and was re-elected by a large margin.[7]

1944

[edit]
1944 Presidential Polling
1944[4]
Month Franklin D. Roosevelt (D) % Thomas E. Dewey (R) %
March 55% 41%
53% 42%
April 48% 46%
May 48% 47%
50% 45%
June 51% 45%
51% 44%
July 46% 45%
49% 41%
August 47% 42%
47% 45%
September 47% 42%
50% 45%
48% 41%
47% 45%
October 48% 47%
50% 47%
November 51% 48%
Actual result 53.39% 45.89%
Difference between actual result and final poll 2.39% -2.11%

Roosevelt actively campaigned in this election against medical advice to counter Republican claims that he was near death. Roosevelt maintained a consistent (although sometimes narrow) lead in the polls, and won a solid victory due to American success in World War II and his continued popularity.[8]

1948

[edit]
1948 Presidential Polling
1948[4]
Month Harry S. Truman (D) % Thomas E. Dewey (R) % Henry A. Wallace (Progressive) % Strom Thurmond (Dixiecrat) %
December 1947/January 1948 46% 41% 7%
February/March 39% 47% 7%
April/May
June/July 38% 49% 6%
37% 48% 5%
August/September 37% 48% 4% 2%
36% 49% 5% 3%
39% 47% 3% 2%
39% 47% 3% 2%
40% 46% 4% 2%
October[9] 45% 50% 4% 2%
Actual result 49.55% 45.07% 2.37% 2.41%
Difference between actual result and final poll 4.55% -4.93% -1.63% 0.41%

While incumbent President Truman's popularity was low at the end of 1946, it improved with his attack on the "Do-Nothing" Republican Congress of 1947–1948 and his association of Dewey with it. Truman also energized segments of the Democratic base by ending segregation in the military and recognizing Israel.[10] Gallup and other polling organizations stopped polling in mid-October, believing that Dewey would win the election, and failed to predict Truman's comeback or his subsequent victory.[2]

1952

[edit]
1952 Presidential Polling
1952[4]
Month Dwight D. Eisenhower (R) % Adlai Stevenson II (D) %
June 59% 31%
July 50% 43%
August
September 55% 40%
55% 41%
October 53% 41%
51% 38%
48% 39%
48% 39%
51% 49%
Actual result 55.14% 44.38%
Difference between actual result and final poll 4.14% -4.62%

Dissatisfaction with the Korean War, corruption and the threat of Communism (the K1c2 formula) allowed World War II hero Eisenhower to win the election in a landslide after consistently leading in the polls, mostly by large margins.[11]

1956

[edit]
1956 Presidential Polling
1956[4]
Month Dwight D. Eisenhower (R) % Adlai Stevenson II (D) %
December 1955/January 1956 61% 35%
February/March 63% 33%
April/May 61% 37%
62% 33%
62% 35%
June/July 62% 35%
61% 37%
August/September 52% 41%
52% 41%
52% 40%
October/November 51% 41%
59% 40%
Actual result 57.37% 41.97%
Difference between actual result and final poll -1.63% 1.97%

After consistently leading in the polls by large margins, incumbent President Eisenhower was easily re-elected due to economic prosperity at home and the end of the Korean War abroad.[12][13]

1960

[edit]
1960 Presidential Polling
1960[4]
Month John F. Kennedy (D) % Richard Nixon (R) %
December 1959/January 1960 43% 48%
February/March 48% 48%
50% 45%
April/May 51% 44%
48% 47%
47% 49%
June/July 50% 46%
August/September 44% 50%
47% 47%
48% 47%
46% 47%
October/November 49% 46%
49% 45%
51% 49%
Actual result 49.72% 49.55%
Difference between actual result and final poll -1.28% 0.55%

Polls throughout the campaign indicated a very close race. Incumbent Vice President Nixon initially led, but then had problems (a poor image in the first television debate and a knee injury which prevented him from campaigning) which gave Kennedy the lead in the polls for most of the campaign. In the end, Kennedy had an extremely close victory.[14]

1964

[edit]
1964 Presidential Polling
1964[4]
Month Lyndon B. Johnson (D) % Barry Goldwater (R) %
June 77% 18%
76% 20%
July 62% 26%
59% 31%
August 65% 29%
September 65% 29%
62% 32%
October 64% 29%
64% 36%
Actual result 61.05% 38.47%
Difference between actual result and final poll -2.95% 2.47%

Incumbent President Johnson maintained a large lead in the polls and won in a landslide due to popular sympathy after the assassination of John F. Kennedy, a good economy, lack of severe foreign problems, and an effective campaign to portray Goldwater as a dangerous, out-of-touch extremist.

1968

[edit]
1968 Presidential Polling
Main article: Nationwide opinion polling for the 1968 United States presidential election
1968[4]
Month Richard Nixon (R) % Hubert Humphrey (D) % George Wallace (American Independent) %
April 43% 34% 9%
May 39% 36% 14%
36% 42% 14%
June 37% 42% 14%
July 35% 40% 16%
40% 38% 16%
August 45% 29% 18%
September 43% 31% 19%
43% 28% 21%
44% 29% 20%
October 44% 36% 15%
November 43% 42% 15%
Actual result 43.42% 42.72% 13.53%
Difference between actual result and final poll 0.42% 0.72% -1.47%

The campaign was always close according to the polls, but after the tumultuous 1968 Democratic Convention Nixon established and maintained a lead. American Independent candidate George Wallace ran in opposition to civil rights and in support of segregation and received considerable support in the South. Humphrey began catching up to Nixon in the polls late in the campaign, but ran out of time as Nixon won a narrow victory.

1972

[edit]
1972 Presidential Polling
Main article: Nationwide opinion polling for the 1972 United States presidential election
1972[4]
Month Richard Nixon (R) % George McGovern (D) %
May 53% 34%
June 53% 37%
July 56% 37%
August 57% 31%
64% 30%
September 61% 33%
October 60% 34%
59% 36%
November 62% 38%
Actual result 60.67% 37.52%
Difference between actual result and final poll -1.33% -0.48%

Incumbent President Nixon was re-elected in a landslide, winning every state except Massachusetts after maintaining a large poll lead due to the economic recovery from the 1969–1970 recession and his portrayal of McGovern as a foreign-policy lightweight and social radical ("amnesty, abortion, and acid"). McGovern was also hurt by his change of vice-presidential candidates in mid-campaign, raising questions about his judgement.[15]

1976

[edit]
1976 Presidential Election
Main article: Nationwide opinion polling for the 1976 United States presidential election
1976[4]
Month Jimmy Carter (D) % Gerald Ford (R) %
March 47% 42%
48% 46%
48% 46%
April 48% 43%
May 52% 42%
53% 40%
June 55% 37%
53% 36%
July 62% 29%
August 54% 32%
51% 36%
September 51% 40%
October 47% 45%
47% 41%
48% 49%
Actual result 50.08% 48.01%
Difference between actual result and final poll 2.08% -0.99%

Carter opened up a large lead over incumbent President Ford due to dissatisfaction with Watergate, Ford's pardon of Nixon and the sluggish economy. Ford closed the gap near the end of the campaign with good debate performances, among other things. He was hurt by his comment that there was no Soviet domination of Eastern Europe and ran out of time to close the polling gap with Carter, who won by a narrow margin.

1980

[edit]
1980 Presidential Election
Main article: Nationwide opinion polling for the 1980 United States presidential election
1980[4]
Month Ronald Reagan (R) % Jimmy Carter (D) % John B. Anderson (I) %
December 1979/January 1980 33% 62%
February/March 31% 60%
33% 58%
34% 40% 21%
April/May 34% 41% 18%
32% 38% 21%
32% 40% 21%
June/July 32% 39% 21%
33% 35% 24%
37% 32% 22%
37% 34% 21%
August/September 45% 29% 14%
38% 39% 13%
39% 39% 14%
October/November 40% 44% 9%
39% 45% 9%
47% 44% 8%
Actual result 50.75% 41.01% 6.61%
Difference between actual result and final poll 3.75% -2.99% -1.39%

During primary season, incumbent Jimmy Carter held a steady lead over the Republican front-runner Ronald Reagan, despite a primary challenge from Senator Ted Kennedy. Reagan, the former Governor of California and GE spokesman, passed Carter in the polls after the primaries, winning over voters dissatisfied with Carter's handling of the economy, the energy crisis, and the Iran hostage crisis. As the race neared its finish, Carter had apparently closed the gap with Reagan; some outlets gave him the lead. Reagan ran an upbeat campaign focused on fixing the economy and restoring America's image, diminished by Watergate and the war in Vietnam. Carter was more negative, attacking Reagan's record on civil rights and social issues. Ronald Reagan defeated Jimmy Carter in a blowout on election night, the third win for Republicans in the past four presidential races.[16]

1984

[edit]
1984 Presidential Election
1984[4]
Month Ronald Reagan (R) % Walter Mondale (D) %
December 1983/January 1984 48% 47%
53% 43%
February/March 52% 42%
50% 45%
52% 44%
April/May 54% 41%
52% 44%
50% 46%
53% 43%
June/July 53% 44%
55% 38%
51% 43%
53% 39%
53% 41%
August/September 52% 41%
56% 37%
58% 37%
55% 39%
October/November 58% 38%
56% 39%
59% 41%
Actual result 58.77% 40.56%
Difference between actual result and final poll -0.23% -0.44%

Reagan had low approval ratings early in his first term,[17] but by 1983 the economy had improved enough to give him a boost for re-election. His challenger was former Vice President Walter Mondale, who advocated a nuclear freeze, the Equal Rights Amendment and a balanced budget. Mondale benefited from a strong first debate (where the 73-year-old Reagan seemed slow), but the Reagan-Bush ticket had a resounding election victory. Reagan again cast himself as the candidate of optimism, taking credit for an improved economy and an increase in national pride after the social upheaval of the 1960s and 1970s. Mondale's unpopular proposal to raise taxes to reduce the deficit and association with the Carter administration's "malaise" largely doomed his campaign from the start.[18]

1988

[edit]
1988 Presidential Election
1988[4]
Month George H. W. Bush (R) % Michael Dukakis (D) %
March 52% 40%
April 45% 43%
May 38% 54%
June 38% 52%
41% 46%
July 41% 47%
37% 54%
August 42% 49%
September 49% 41%
47% 42%
October 50% 40%
November 56% 44%
Actual result 53.37% 45.65%
Difference between actual result and final poll -2.63% 1.65%

Although Dukakis took a large lead in the initial polls, Vice President Bush's campaign portrayed him as soft on crime and used the good economy, Reagan's popularity and Bush's no new taxes pledge to close the gap and eventually take a large lead. Bush easily won the general election.

1992

[edit]
1992 Presidential Polls
1992[4]
Month Bill Clinton (D) % George H. W. Bush (R) % Ross Perot (I) %
March 25% 44% 24%
April 26% 41% 25%
May 29% 35% 30%
25% 35% 35%
June 26% 30% 38%
25% 31% 39%
24% 24% 37%
24% 32% 34%
27% 33% 32%
July 40% 48% Candidate withdrew from race
56% 34%
56% 36%
57% 32%
August 56% 37%
50% 39%
52% 42%
September 54% 39%
51% 42%
50% 40%
54% 38%
51% 35% 8%
October 47% 35% 10%
50% 34% 9%
51% 33% 10%
46% 34% 13%
47% 34% 14%
47% 29% 15%
44% 32% 17%
41% 30% 20%
42% 31% 19%
40% 38% 16%
41% 40% 14%
43% 36% 15%
November 49% 37% 14%
Actual result 43.01% 37.45% 18.91%
Difference between actual result and final poll -5.99% 0.45% 4.91%

The polls fluctuated during the spring and early summer, with incumbent President Bush and independent challenger Ross Perot trading the lead. Perot withdrew from the race in July, however, and Clinton took a consistent lead in the polls by blaming Bush for the poor economy and promising that he would fix it ("It's the economy, stupid"). Although Perot returned to the race in September, he could not regain his previous support and Clinton won the general election by a comfortable margin.

1996

[edit]
1996 Presidential Polls
1996[4]
Month Bill Clinton (D) % Bob Dole (R) % Ross Perot (Reform) %
January 43% 39% 16%
February
March 47% 34% 17%
April 49% 35% 15%
May 47% 32% 19%
49% 35% 15%
June 49% 33% 17%
July 50% 33% 12%
50% 35% 10%
August 52% 30% 12%
48% 39% 7%
50% 38% 7%
51% 38% 7%
55% 34% 6%
September 53% 36% 5%
54% 36% 4%
55% 34% 5%
55% 34% 5%
55% 32% 6%
51% 34% 8%
50% 36% 6%
52% 36% 4%
53% 34% 6%
51% 38% 5%
49% 39% 6%
51% 37% 6%
57% 32% 5%
October 53% 36% 6%
51% 39% 5%
55% 35% 5%
55% 34% 6%
51% 38% 5%
56% 35% 4%
48% 39% 5%
51% 36% 8%
54% 35% 6%
52% 33% 8%
53% 34% 6%
54% 34% 7%
49% 37% 7%
51% 35% 10%
50% 37% 7%
November 52% 41% 7%
Actual result 49.23% 40.72% 8.40%
Difference between actual result and final poll -2.77% -0.28% 1.40%

Incumbent President Clinton held a comfortable lead in the polls throughout the campaign due to the good economy, stable international situation, and tying Dole to Newt Gingrich (the unpopular speaker of the House), easily winning the general election.

2000

[edit]
2000 Presidential Polls
2000[4]
Month George W. Bush (R) % Al Gore (D) % Ralph Nader (Green) %
April 47% 41% 4%
May
June 46% 41% 6%
50% 38% 6%
July 45% 43% 5%
50% 39% 4%
August 54% 37% 4%
55% 39% 2%
46% 47% 3%
46% 45% 3%
September 44% 47% 3%
46% 45% 2%
42% 49% 3%
41% 49% 4%
42% 49% 2%
41% 49% 3%
44% 48% 2%
41% 51% 3%
42% 50% 2%
47% 44% 2%
46% 44% 2%
46% 44% 3%
45% 45% 4%
October 41% 49% 2%
40% 51% 2%
48% 41% 4%
50% 42% 4%
45% 45% 2%
45% 45% 3%
48% 43% 2%
47% 44% 3%
51% 40% 4%
44% 46% 4%
49% 42% 3%
52% 39% 4%
49% 42% 3%
47% 44% 3%
47% 43% 4%
November 47% 43% 4%
48% 46% 4%
Actual result 47.87% 48.38% 2.74%
Difference between actual result and final poll -0.13% 2.38% -1.26%

The election was close throughout the campaign; Gore used the good economy to his advantage, but was hurt by being perceived as robotic and pompous. The Lewinsky scandal also might have hurt him, and helped Bush in the polls with voters concerned about moral values.

Despite multiple court challenges by the Gore campaign after a recount in Florida, the Supreme Court upheld the election; Bush won the Electoral College despite losing the popular vote by 0.51%.[19]

The 2000 election remains the only presidential election since President Truman's upset re-election in 1948 in which the final pre-election polls incorrectly predicted the winner of the national popular vote.

2004

[edit]
2004 Presidential Polls
2004[4]
Month George W. Bush (R) % John Kerry (D) %
March 44% 50%
49% 45%
April 47% 43%
50% 44%
May 47% 47%
47% 45%
46% 47%
June 43% 49%
48% 47%
July 45% 50%
46% 47%
51% 45%
August 48% 46%
48% 46%
September 52% 45%
52% 44%
October 49% 49%
48% 49%
52% 44%
51% 46%
49% 49%
Actual result 50.73% 48.26%
Difference between actual result and final poll 1.73% -0.74%

The election was closely contested, as dissatisfaction with the Bush administration's handling of the Iraq War and a sluggish economy helped Kerry. Bush accused Kerry of flip-flopping, however,[20] and the Swift Boat Veterans for Truth accused Kerry of being unpatriotic.

A week before the election, al-Qaeda released a video warning Americans not to re-elect Bush. Bush's poll ratings in swing states then gave him a comfortable lead, and he was re-elected.[4]

2008

[edit]
Main article: Nationwide opinion polling for the 2008 United States presidential election
2008 Presidential Polls
2008[4]
Month Barack Obama (D) % John McCain (R) %
March 46% 44%
43% 47%
April 46% 43%
45% 45%
May 42% 48%
47% 43%
44% 47%
June 48% 41%
45% 45%
July 48% 42%
45% 44%
49% 40%
44% 44%
August 48% 42%
45% 45%
50% 42%
September 44% 49%
50% 44%
46% 46%
October 52% 41%
49% 43%
52% 42%
53% 40%
53% 42%
Actual result 52.86% 45.60%
Difference between actual result and final poll -0.14% 3.60%

The campaign was close during the spring and summer, with Obama and McCain trading the lead. The economy went into recession in December 2007,[21] but Obama was initially hurt in the polls by Hillary Clinton supporters.[22] The Republicans attacked him for being inexperienced,[23] and McCain got a temporary bump in the polls after choosing Sarah Palin as his vice-presidential nominee. The financial crisis allowed Obama to open a consistent, comfortable lead in the polls at the beginning of October, however, and he won the election by a comfortable margin.[4]

2012

[edit]
Main article: Nationwide opinion polling for the 2012 United States presidential election
2012 Presidential Polls
2012[24]
Month Barack Obama (D) % Mitt Romney (R) %
February 48% 44%
49% 43%
49% 44%
March 47% 45%
48% 44%
April 48% 43%
49% 43%
47% 44%
48% 44%
May 47% 44%
46% 46%
47% 45%
46% 44%
June 48% 45%
46% 45%
47% 44%
July 46% 45%
47% 45%
46% 45%
47% 45%
August 48% 44%
47% 45%
47% 46%
September 47% 47%
49% 45%
48% 45%
49% 45%
October 49% 46%
47% 48%
47% 47%
47% 48%
November 49% 48%
Actual result 51.01% 47.15%
Difference between actual result and final poll 2.01% -0.85%

President Obama and his campaign aired early negative ads calling Republican challenger Mitt Romney an out-of-touch, plutocratic, wealthy job destroyer since his days as CEO at Bain Capital. Romney bounced back in the polls after strong performances in the primaries and because the economy was still recovering from the 2007–2009 recession.

In April, after Obama publicly expressed his support of same-sex marriage and a story was published about Romney bullying a high-school classmate who was thought to be gay, Obama took larger leads in the polls. Romney and the Republicans attacked him for claiming that the economy was doing well, for welfare waivers, and China's unfair trade practices. The polls were close during most of the summer as Romney made several gaffes on a trip to Europe and Israel during the Olympics. He was also hurt by the release of a speech he delivered at a campaign fundraiser in which suggested that 47 percent of Americans, who did not pay federal income taxes, would "vote for the President, no matter what" because they felt "entitled to health care, to food, to housing - you name it."

After the conventions, Obama had a clear lead until he did poorly in the first debate. Romney took the lead, and the polls were tied in early and mid-October. The Democrats then regained their momentum but Obama became the first President to win re-election by a narrower margin in both the popular vote and in the Electoral College.

2016

[edit]
Main article: Nationwide opinion polling for the 2016 United States presidential election
2016 Presidential Polls
2016[25]
Month Donald Trump (R) % Hillary Clinton (D) % Gary Johnson (L) % Jill Stein (G) %
June 36% 41% 7% 4%
37% 42% 8% 5%
July 37% 41% 7% 4%
38% 41% 9% 4%
40% 40% 7% 3%
August 38% 42% 7% 3%
36% 44% 9% 4%
37% 44% 9% 3%
37% 42% 9% 3%
38% 42% 8% 3%
September 39% 41% 8% 3%
40% 42% 9% 3%
40% 41% 8% 3%
42% 43% 7% 2%
October 41% 44% 7% 3%
39% 44% 7% 2%
39% 46% 7% 2%
40% 45% 6% 2%
November 43% 45% 5% 2%
42% 46% 5% 2%
Actual result 46.09% 48.18% 3.28% 1.13%
Difference between actual result and final poll 4.09% 2.18% -1.72% -0.87%

Political outsider and businessman Donald Trump and former First Lady and Secretary of State Hillary Clinton were seen unfavorably by many pollsters and pundits, and it was predicted that Trump would lose by a large margin to Democratic opponent Clinton. Trump won over many white, blue-collar workers in the Great Lakes and Rust Belt regions (former Democratic strongholds), enabling him to win the Electoral College despite losing the popular vote by slightly over two percent.[26]

2020

[edit]
Main article: Nationwide opinion polling for the 2020 United States presidential election
2020 Presidential Polls
2020[27]
Month Joe Biden (D) % Donald Trump (R) %
February 50% 45%
50% 46%
March 50% 44%
51% 44%
50% 44%
April 47% 42%
48% 42%
May 47% 43%
49% 44%
48% 42%
June 49% 42%
50% 42%
51% 41%
50% 40%
July 50% 41%
49% 40%
50% 41%
51% 42%
August 49% 42%
50% 42%
September 49% 43%
50% 43%
49% 43%
October 51% 42%
52% 42%
51% 43%
November 51% 44%
Actual result 51.31% 46.86%
Difference between actual result and final poll 0.31% 2.86%

Former Vice President Joe Biden had been leading in most national polls, but President Donald Trump believed that the polls would underestimate him again. Although the polls had underestimated Trump's strength nationally and in Ohio, Florida, and Iowa, Biden won back the blue Midwestern states and made inroads in the Sun Belt to win the election.

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Hillygus, D. S. (December 1, 2011). "The Evolution of Election Polling in the United States". Public Opinion Quarterly. 75 (5): 962–981. doi:10.1093/poq/nfr054. Retrieved October 6, 2024.
  2. ^ a b "Poll" in The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed.' New York. Columbia University Press. 2012. OCLC 746941797[ISBN missing]
  3. ^ a b Shafer, Jack. "Opinion | Journalists Are Hooked on Polls and They'll Stay That Way". POLITICO. Retrieved November 19, 2021.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v "Gallup Presidential Election Trial-Heat Trends, 1936-2008". gallup.com. Gallup, Inc. Archived from the original on June 30, 2017. Retrieved August 30, 2012.
  5. ^ Squire, Peverill (Spring 1988). "Why the 1936 Literary Digest Poll Failed". The Public Opinion Quarterly. 52 (1): 125–133. doi:10.1086/269085.
  6. ^ Derrick Dickey. "1936 Roosevelt v. Landon". Kennesaw.edu. Retrieved September 8, 2012.
  7. ^ Derrick Dickey. "1940 Roosevelt v. Willkie". Kennesaw.edu. Retrieved September 8, 2012.
  8. ^ Derrick Dickey. "1944 Roosevelt v. Dewey". Kennesaw.edu. Archived from the original on October 28, 2012. Retrieved September 8, 2012.
  9. ^ Harry J. Enten (October 18, 2016). "Clinton-Trump Probably Won't Be The Next 'Dewey Defeats Truman'". FiveThirtyEight. Retrieved November 2, 2016.
  10. ^ P.O. Box 400406 (August 22, 2012). "American President: Harry S. Truman: Campaigns and Elections". Millercenter.org. Archived from the original on September 5, 2012. Retrieved September 8, 2012.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  11. ^ "Election of 1952". Historycentral.com. December 20, 2008. Retrieved September 8, 2012.
  12. ^ "BBC ON THIS DAY | 7 | 1956: Eisenhower re-elected with record vote". BBC News. November 7, 1956. Retrieved September 8, 2012.
  13. ^ "1956: We Still Like Ike". Kennesaw.edu. Retrieved September 8, 2012.
  14. ^ "Campaign of 1960 - John F. Kennedy Presidential Library & Museum". Jfklibrary.org. Retrieved September 8, 2012.
  15. ^ Derrick Dickey. "1972 Nixon v. McGovern". Kennesaw.edu. Archived from the original on May 25, 2012. Retrieved September 8, 2012.
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  25. ^ "2016 General Election: Trump vs. Clinton vs. Johnson vs. Stein". RealClearPolitics.
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  27. ^ "2020 General Election: Trump vs. Biden". RealClearPolitics.
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