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Mir Jumla II

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For other people named Mir Jumla, see Mir Jumla (disambiguation).

'Mu'azzam Khan
Khan-i-Khanan
Sipahsalar
Yar-i-Wafahdar
Mir Jumla II
Nawab
14th Grand Vizier of the Mughal Empire
In office
April 1656 – 1657
BadshahAurangzeb
Preceded bySaadullah Khan
Succeeded byJafar Khan
23rd Subahdar of Bengal
In office
9 May 1660 – 30 March 1663
BadshahAurangzeb
Preceded byShah Shuja
Succeeded byShaista Khan
Personal details
Born12 February 1591
Isfahan, Safavid Iran
Died30 March 1663(1663-03-30) (aged 72)
Mankachar, Ahom Kingdom
ChildrenMuhammad Amin Khan
Religious affiliationIslam
Military service
Allegiance Golconda Sultanate (1637–1655)
Mughal Empire (1656–1663)
Branch/serviceArmy of the Mughal Empire
Battles/warsBattle of Khajwa
Battle of Kaliabor
Paugla Pool from the River (1817) by Sir Charles D'Oyly. This bridge was known to be constructed in 1660 AD by Mir Jumla.

Mir Jumla II (12 February 1591 – 30 March 1663), or Amir Jumla,[1] also known as Ardistānī Mir Muhammad,[2] was a military general, wealthy diamond trader,[3] a Vizier of Golconda sultanate,[4] and later a prominent subahdar of Bengal under the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb.[5]

Mir Jumla is a powerful politician that played important role in northern and Peninsular region of India during the reign of Shah Jahan to Aurangzeb, where he encountered multiple european nation companies interest in India, such as Danish East India Company, East India Company, Dutch East India Company, and Portuguese East India Company.[6]

He commanded the vast merchant fleets enterprise which sailed throughout Surat, Thatta, Arakan, Ayuthya, Balasore, Aceh, Melaka, Johore, Bantam, Makassar, Ceylon, Bandar Abbas, Mecca, Jeddah, Basra, Aden, Masqat, Mocha and the Maldives.[7] The most important aspect of Mir Jumla's rule in Bengal was his northeastern frontier military campaign, by which he conquered the frontier kingdoms of Kamrup (Kamarupa) and Assam.[8]

Early life

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See also: Golconda diamonds mining and trading

Mir Jumla was born as Mir Mohammad Sayyid Ardistani in Safavid Iran in 1591 to a poor oil merchant of Isfahan,[9] named Mirza Hazaru. Although his parents were extremely poor, he had the opportunity to learn letters which probably lead him to find a job as a clerk under a diamond merchant who had connections with the Golconda Sultanate[10][11] (present day Hyderabad, India), a region that was famous for its diamond mines. He may have arrived in Golconda in 1630 (although some scholars have suggested alternative dates of 1615 or 1620),[12] due to financial debts to a Sheikh ul Islam and general misgovernance in his country.[13]

One version from James Talboys Wheeler when he entered India region, Mir Jumla at first entered the service of Mughal empire as soldier, where he risen through ranks to the high post.[14] However, due to being insulted by Dara Shikoh, designated heir of emperor Shah Jahan, he left the service.[15]

Mir Jumla also started his own diamond business and got involved in maritime commercial endeavours which increased his wealth.[16] At the prospect of advancing his career, He brought presents to the Qutb Shahi Sultan of Golconda and bribed his way into the Sultan's court.[17][18] Mir Jumla has presented numerous tributes from his trades to the sultan, such as rarities from Europe, cabinets from China, and elephants from Ceylon.[19] Thus he managed to rise into the position of Vizier (Prime Minister) of the sultanate.[4]

Under the service of Golconda (1637–1655)

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As Mir Jumla raised through the ranks, sometime between February 1634 and December 1636, Mir Jumla was appointed as Sar-i-Khāil, or treasurer of the Golconda state, which he performed strictly to impose the golden Firman of the sultanate.[20]

His proficiency in service and administration were generally proved when he administered trade at the Port of Masulipatnam. [21] His strictness drew ire from the English company factories in Machilipatnam as they saw Mir Jumla were detrimental to the British interest.[22] Mir Jumla continues to impose the extraction moneys from the British company officials by using the Firman mandate from the Sultanate of Golconda.[23] This caused the Sultan to appoint Mir Jumla as chief minister, thus further causing him to become more influential in Golconda region that even the British officers and companies began to deal with Mir Jumla disregarding request from British President and council in Surat to confiscate properties belonging to Mir Jumla.[24]

Narayan Sarkar even noted that the personal commercial enterprise of Mir Jumla has gradually became competitor of the East India Company.[25] Mir Jumla had his own ships and organised merchant fleets in the 1640s that sailed throughout Surat, Thatta, Arakan, Ayuthya, Balasore, Aceh, Melaka, Johore, Bantam, Makassar, Ceylon, Bandar Abbas, Mecca, Jeddah, Basra, Aden, Masqat, Mocha and the Maldives.[7] He effectively monopolized almost all trading activities to Iran.[26] Mir Jumla also noted for his activities to construct ships in the East Coasts of India, as recorded by British journals to have employed european sailors to build ships. On 29 January 1647, British representatives Thomas Winter and Richard Hudson at Machilipatnam wrote to Surat that Mir Jumla has sent two of his ships which, where one of them is Junk ship made by British sailors, named Darya Dawla or River of wealth,.[27]

On 21 June 1637, He was summoned to the Qutub Shahi court, and by the 23 June, The sultan conferred the title of Sar-i-Khail (Lord of the Horses) on him .[28] The furthest extent of the kingdom during was Cumbam near Kadapa district, where Mir Jumla occupied a forts in Gandikota.[2]

In 1639, Mir Jumla was appointed as Nawab, thus increasing his importance in the eyes of the British company, as they further presented him with gifts, lending men, and traded on his behalf to keep him satisfied.[29] The president of Bantam Presidency saw this as necessity as the rival companies from Dutch, Portuguese, and Denmark, also showering Mir Jumla with gifts to gain his favor.[30]

In 1646, Mir Jumla decided to invade the Kingdom of Chandragiri. Mir Jumla conquered the forts of Udayagiri, advanced southwards along the coast, and conquering Chengleput in the process.[31] Then Mir Jumla continued his conquest to capture the whole of Kadapa district and expanded as far as Tirupati[32] and Sri Kalahasti.[33] He also laid siege to the dutch settlement at Pulicat until the Dutch offered submission to him. He further advanced and laid siege to the fort of Vellore.

By April 1647, the king offered submission to him and promised to pay him tribute.[34][35] In 1650, Mir Jumla conquered the nearly inaccessible Gandikota fort from Timma Nayadu with the help of European Gunners .[36][37] Although there was success in conquering former lands of the Vijayanagara Empire, he was unable to conquer the fort of Gingee from the nayaks and in 1648, Gingee fell to the Adil Shahis.[38]

As a skilled financier, Mir Jumla employed Telugu Niyogi Brāhmaṇas to collect revenue, where he was able to collect 43 lakhs of Rupees from his domains which were rich in Diamonds, Iron, Saltpetre and Steel.[39]By his enormous wealth, he was able to recruit Pathans, Rajputs, Afghans and Mughals in his campaign to Bijapur in 1652. During this year, Mir Jumla was tasked to govern Golconda the Hyderabad Karnatak kingdom nearly 40,000 square kilometers with annual revenues equivalent to four million rupees a year, while his military role also contribute greatly to his wealth.[40] For the purpose of making 20 artillery pieces[better source needed], he melted Hindu idols captured from temples with the help of his French Surgeon, Gunner and Gun founder M Claude Maille but was unable to melt the 6 Hindu idols that belonged to the temple of Gondikota.[41][42] Later in his letter to Khalifa I Sultan, The Wazir of the Safavid sultan Shah Abbas II he said:

By God's grace and the Padshah's luck, The Banner of Islam has been flown over the Infidel Karnatak and that of Hinduism has been brought down. The entire body of rebels and rajas have been brought under my fold. The Voice of Islam and the practices of our saints have been spread here. [43]

Poonamallee mosque

In 1653, Rustam Beg a Havildar under Mir Jumla demolished the upper part of the temple at Poonamallee and erected a mosque over it.[44] Based on this, Sita Ram Goel has listed the Poonamallee mosque along with other mosques built from materials of Hindu temples in his Hindu Temples What Happened to them?.[45] Even Islamic scholar Richard M. Eaton, in his thesis on temple desecration also lists this temple as the part of desecration of temples during Islamic rule .[46][47][verification needed][48][verification needed][49][verification needed]

from 1653 to 1654, in one of prince Aurengzeb letters to Shah Jahan, he cites a report of his agent Mohammad Amin where Mir Jumla is said to have maintained a force of 9500 Cavalry, and 20000 infantry and his army were equipped with breeds of Iraqi and Arabian horse.[50][51]

Career in the Mughal Imperial Court

[edit]

With the governorship over the Karnataka domains, Mir Jumla exponentially transformed from a wazir of a powerless master to a position of unchecked power and wealth. Naturally many officers in the Qutub Shahi court felt jealous of him and they naturally positioned the mind of the sultan against the Wazir.[52] So the sultan demanded a portion of loot obtained by Mir Jumla in the karnatak which Mir Jumla flatly refused as he thought that the conquest was solely his work and the sultan had no part in to take it.[53][54] At some point, The Sultan of Golconda conspired with other courtiers to capture and blind Mir Jumla, which Mir Jumla immediately aware of, thus prompting him to began to look for other options of service.[55]

Prince Aurangzeb, which has passionate ambition of conquering the rich State of Golconda, was eager to opened a secret correspondence with Mir Jumla.[40] He also sent an agent, Muhammad Mumin, and then sent a secret petition for appointment under the Emperor.[56] At the recommendation of prince Aurangzeb, emperor Shah Jahan offered to Mir Jumla his protection. However, Mir Jumla feigned consent, and urged the Mughal Court to keep this agreement secret.[40] As Aurangzeb assisted Mir Jumla from being captured by the Golconda sultanates, he finally accept Mughal hegemony and wrote to the prince agreeing to join the Mughal service.[56]

Campaign & Governorship in Bengal

[edit]
The Mughal armies of Aurangzeb and Shah Shuja confront each other

On his accession to the throne, Aurangzeb entrusted Mir Jumla with the task of dealing with Shah Shuja, where the rebellious prince was defeated in the Battle of Khajwa and took to flight.[57]


Mir Jumla also manage to convince the Zamindar of Birbhum to join defect from Shuja force.[58][verification needed] Thus Mir Jumla continues to pursue Shah Shuja until his force reached Tanda.[59] From Tanda to Dhaka (capital of the present day Bangladesh), where he arrived on 9 May 1660. The latter, however, had already left Dhaka, crossed the eastern border and ultimately found shelter with the king of Arakan (modern day Myanmar).[59] Later, at the battle of Giria, Mir Jumla once again leading Aurangzeb army against the Elephant artillery of Shah Shuja.[60]

Soon after his arrival at Dhaka, Mir Jumla received the imperial farman (decree) appointing him subahdar (governor) of Bengal in recognition of his services and further honoured Mir Jumla with titles, rewards and increment of mansab (rank).[61][verification needed] He at once began reorganising the administration, which had become slack in the absence of Shuja during the war of succession, and disobedience and refractoriness had become prevalent. Reversing the action of Shuja who had transferred the capital to Rajmahal, he restored Dhaka to its former glory. He then paid attention to the administration of justice, dismissed dishonest Qazis (clerics and judges) and Mir Adils and replaced them with honest persons[citation needed].[62][verification needed] Finally Mir Jumla manage to pacify Hijli.[63][verification needed]

Later, Mir Jumla further promoted as Diwan al-Kul, or Grand vizier .'[64][65] It is reported that this is due to his effort of returning Babur's diamond to the Mughal possession.[65] He also granted the command of 6000 Mughal cavalry, residence near Agra Fort, precious stones, 200 horses, 10 elephants, as well as 500000 rupees payment in cash.[65]As a bonus, he also granted a fiefdom in Karnataka for seven years, without obligation to pay any tribute.[65]

Mir Jumla met and befriended the French traveller Jean-Baptiste Tavernier after his defection into Mughal side.[66] who testify that Mir Jumla were a prominent governor of Mughal empire under Aurangzeb.[67] Tavernier advised Mir Jumla that there is little market of diamonds in europe at that time, thus prompting Mir Jumla to command his diamond miners back for agricultural works.[67]

For naval operations such as during Assam campaign he employs Portuguese, English, and Dutch sailors to operate his 323 warships.[68][69] Furthermore, Mir Jumla also employing a British named Thomas Pratt to construct boats and making ammunition for riverine warfare[70] Francisco Bethencourt and Catia Antunes has noted how Mir Jumla shared traits of Asian princes or potentates for his fondness for cannon weaponries, and how he is willing to employ European gunners such as crews of Ter Schelling ship.[71]

Northeastern frontier expedition

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Main article: Mir Jumla's invasion of Assam

Koch Behar was a vassal state, but Raja Pran Narayan took advantage of the war of succession and shook off his allegiance. The Ahom king of Assam, Jayadhwaj Singha, occupied a part of Kamrup, which had earlier been integrated with the Bengal subah.[citation needed] Mir Jumla advanced with a large army and navy against the enemy; he sent the main body of the troops and the navy towards Kamrup, while he himself proceeded against Koch Behar. On his approach, Pran Narayan evacuated the country and fled towards the hills.[72] Koch Behar was occupied in about one month and a half and making administrative arrangements there, Mir Jumla came to join the advance party towards Kamrup.[73] The king of Assam was prudent enough to evacuate Kamrup, but Mir Jumla decided to conquer Assam also. Mir Jumla took 12,000 cavalry, 30,000 infantry, and a fleet of 323 ships and boats up river towards Assam—the naval contingent comprised Portuguese, English, and Dutch sailors.[72]

An account of the campaign and the life during the times was presented by the Venetian adventurer Niccolao Manucci in his memoirs Storia do Mogor, referencing French historian François Catrou. Manucci also got acquainted with a Mughal Navy officer of British descent during the same period named Thomas Pratte.[74] Pratte was appointed by Mir Jumla as an officer in the Mughal navy and used to collect war boats and procure gunpowder necessary for naval warfare.[75]

In less than six weeks' time, since his starting from Guwahati, Mir Jumla conquered up to Garhgaon, the capital of Assam, in March 17 1662.[76] from this campaign, Mir Jumla captured 100 elephants, 300000 coins, 8000 shields, 1000 ships, and 173 massive rice stores.[77]

Beyond the Assam region, there was full of high hills and mountains, inaccessible for horses and troops, where the Ahom king took shelter. During the rains, the Mughals were locked in a few raised grounds, the roads were submerged, the streams and even the Nalahs (drains) swelled up to become big rivers.[citation needed] Many armies would have disintegrated under these circumstances but under Mir Jumla's magnificent leadership, the Mughal army held firm and remained on the offensive. But, the Mughals lost two thirds of the army due to lack of food and relentless attacks by Assamese shart shooters at night. After the rains were over, both Mir Jumla and the king of Assam agreed to sign a peace treaty. The terms of treaty implied[citation needed] that the Ahom king or Swargadeo would accept Mughal rule and both the Swargadeo and the Tipam king would offer their daughters to the Mughal harem (The Ahom princess was Ramani Gabharu, the sole daughter of the then Swargadeo, Jayadhwaj Singha. She later became the daughter-in-law of Emperor Aurangzeb as Rahmat Banu Begum). The Ahoms also had to pay a war indemnity and an annual tribute of 20 elephants. They also had to cede the western half of their kingdom from Guwahati to Manas river.[citation needed]

Death and legacy

[edit]

Mir Jumla died on his way back from the Assamese territory on 30 March 1663. His tomb located on a small hillock at Mankachar, Assam has been maintained over the centuries. It is near Garo Hills in the northeastern Indian state of Assam bordering Meghalaya. The tomb reflects a remarkably long grave and bears testimony to the tall height of Mir Jumla. There are two more unidentified graves beside the tomb of Mir Jumla said to be of two Pirs, i.e. Turko-Persian Islamic preachers. It is recorded by François Bernier that the death of Mir Jumla were greatly mourned by peoples of Assam[78][verification needed]

Mir Jumla's construction activities in Dhaka and its suburbs resulted in two roads, two bridges and a network of forts, which were necessary for public welfare[citation needed], strategic purposes, and speedy dispatch of troops, equipment and ammunition[citation needed]. A fort at Tangi-Jamalpur guarded one of the roads connecting Dhaka with the northern districts; it is now known as the Mymensingh Road.[79] The other road led eastward, connecting the capital city with Fatulla (old Dhapa), where there were two forts, and by extension the road could lead up to Khizrpur where two other forts were situated. The Pagla bridge lies on this road off Fatulla.[79] Some parts of the roads and forts built by Mir Jumla are still extant.[citation needed]

See also

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Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ James Talboys Wheeler (1876, p. xxx)
  2. ^ a b James Burgess (1913). The Chronology of Modern India for Four Hundred Years from the Close of the Fifteenth Century A.D. 1494-1894. J. Grant. p. 99. Retrieved 8 March 2024.
  3. ^ Sarkar 1951, p. 3
  4. ^ a b Gommans, Jos (2003). Mughal Warfare: Indian Frontiers and High Roads to Empire 1500–1700. Routledge. p. 78. ISBN 0-415-23988-5.
  5. ^ Majumdar, R.C, ed. (1974). The History and culture of the Indian People Vol 7- The Mughal Empire. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. pp. 475–476.
  6. ^ Jagadish Narayan Sarkar (1939, p. 918-949)
  7. ^ a b Pearson, M. (2007). The Indian Ocean. Routledge. ISBN 9780415445382. Retrieved 21 April 2015.
  8. ^ D. Nath (January 1989). History of the Koch Kingdom, C. 1515-1615 (Hardcover). Mittal Publications. pp. 86, 225–226. ISBN 9788170991090. Retrieved 8 March 2024.
  9. ^ James Talboys Wheeler (1876, p. 281)
  10. ^ Richards 2005, p. 155.
  11. ^ Sarkar 1951, Early life of Mir Jumla pp. 1.
  12. ^ Cátia A.P. Antunes; Francisco Bethencourt, eds. (2022). Merchant Cultures A Global Approach to Spaces, Representations and Worlds of Trade, 1500–1800. Brill. p. 108. ISBN 978-90-04-50657-2. Retrieved 8 March 2024.
  13. ^ Journal of Bihar and Orissa Research Society 1942, Mir Jumla-Iran Correspondence pp.206.
  14. ^ James Talboys Wheeler (1876, p. 281-282)
  15. ^ James Talboys Wheeler (1876, p. 281-282)
  16. ^ Sarkar 1951, p. 3
  17. ^ Irvine 1907, Aurengzeb pp.232.
  18. ^ Dale R. Perelman G.G (1945). Mountain of Light The Story of the Koh-I-Noor Diamond. AuthorHouse. ISBN 9781477216293. called the Panther of Ferghana. From Baber, the stone fell to his ill-fated son ... Mir Jumla, a Persian diamond merchant, traveled to India in search of fortune.u A skilled politician, Jumla connived to ...
  19. ^ James Talboys Wheeler (1876, p. 281-282)
  20. ^ Jagadish Narayan Sarkar (1939, p. 922)
  21. ^ Sinnappah Arasaratnam; Aniruddha Ray (1994). Masulipatnam and Cambay A History of Two Port-towns, 1500-1800 (Hardcover). Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers. p. 49. ISBN 9788121506465. Retrieved 8 March 2024. ... Mir Muhamad Said in Golconda and in the trade of Masulipatnam . From 1637 when he became provincial governor in ... Jumla in 1643 and became nawab of the south and expanded his trading operations along the coast through his appointees ...
  22. ^ Jagadish Narayan Sarkar (1939, p. 922)
  23. ^ Jagadish Narayan Sarkar (1939, p. 922)
  24. ^ Jagadish Narayan Sarkar (1939, p. 924=925)
  25. ^ Jagadish Narayan Sarkar (1939, p. 936-937)
  26. ^ Jagadish Narayan Sarkar (1939, p. 936-937)
  27. ^ Jagadish Narayan Sarkar (1939, p. 928-929)
  28. ^ Sarkar 1951, Wazir of Golconda pp. 10.
  29. ^ Jagadish Narayan Sarkar (1939, p. 925)
  30. ^ Jagadish Narayan Sarkar (1939, p. 926)
  31. ^ K. Rajayyan (1978). Selections from History of Tamilnadu, 1565-1965. Madurai Publishing House. p. 41. Retrieved 8 March 2024.
  32. ^ T. K. T. Viraraghavacharya (1997). History of Tirupati The Thiruvengadam Temple · Volume 2. Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanams. p. 608. Retrieved 8 March 2024.
  33. ^ Sarkar 1951, p. 34
  34. ^ Sarkar 1952, Mir Jumla Conquers the entire Eastern Karnataka pp. 119-121.
  35. ^ Sarkar 1951, Mir Jumla Conquers Vellore pp. 16-17.
  36. ^ Qaiser, Ahsan Jan, ed. (1982), "Mir Jumla Captures Gandikota", The Indian response to European technology and culture, Oxford University press, p. 48
  37. ^ Sarkar 1951, Fort of Gandikota pp.48.
  38. ^ Sarkar 1951, "Gingee" pp.45.
  39. ^ Sarkar 1951, "Civil Administration of Mir Jumla" pp.76.
  40. ^ a b c John F. Richards (1993). The Mughal Empire Part 1, Volume 5 (paperback). Cambridge University Press. pp. 156–157. ISBN 9780521566032. Retrieved 8 March 2024.
  41. ^ Sarkar 1951, Gondikota pp. 82.
  42. ^ Ball, Valentine (1925), "Mir Jumla melts the idols", The Travels of Jean Baptiste Tavernier in India, Oxford University press, p. 232
  43. ^ Journal of Bihar and Orissa Research Society 1942, Mir Jumla-Iran Correspondence pp.193.
  44. ^ Sarkar 1951, Destruction of Poonamallee temple pp. 86.
  45. ^ Goel, Sita Ram (ed.). Hindu temples,What Happened to them?. Voice of India publications. p. 187. 11. Poonamalle ... Chingleput District in Tamil Nadu
  46. ^ Richard, Eaton. "Temple desecration and Indo-Muslim Rule". In Lawrence, Bruce (ed.). Beyond Turk and Hindu, Rethinking Religious Identities. p. 267. Serial No 61:Poonamallee temple
  47. ^ Jagadish Narayan Sarkar (1939, p. 56)
  48. ^ Jagadish Narayan Sarkar (1939, p. 56)
  49. ^ Jagadish Narayan Sarkar (1939, p. 56)
  50. ^ Sarkar 1951, "Mir Jumla's Army" pp. 80-81.
  51. ^ Flynn, V J A, ed. (1971), "Letter 46", English translation of Adab-I-Alamgiri, p. 317
  52. ^ Sarkar 1951, p. 29
  53. ^ Sarkar 1951, Rebellion.pp 104.
  54. ^ Sarkar 1952, Rebellion of Mir Jumla pp.121-122.
  55. ^ Sarkar 1952, Rebellion of Mir Jumla pp.122-123.
  56. ^ a b Sarkar 1952, Rebellion of Mir Jumla pp.123-124.
  57. ^ Sarkar 1951, p. 147
  58. ^ Jagadish Narayan Sarkar (1939, p. 175-183)
  59. ^ a b [Sir Jadunath Sarkar, 1972, History of Aurangzeb, vol. 2, London: Orient Longman]
  60. ^ Dennis Showalter (2013). Coetzee, Daniel; W. Eysturlid, Lee (eds.). Philosophers of War [2 Volumes] The Evolution of History's Greatest Military Thinkers [2 Volumes] (ebook). Bloomsbury Publishing USA. p. 47. ISBN 9780313070334. Retrieved 8 March 2024.
  61. ^ Jagadish Narayan Sarkar (1939, p. 234-242)
  62. ^ Jagadish Narayan Sarkar (1939, p. 234-242)
  63. ^ Jagadish Narayan Sarkar (1939, p. 234-242)
  64. ^ Indian Institute of Public Administration (1976). The Indian Journal of Public Administration: Quarterly Journal of the Indian Institute of Public Administration, Volume 22. The Institute.
  65. ^ a b c d Iradj Amini (June 2013). "5". The Koh-i-noor Diamond (June 2013). Roli Books. ISBN 9789351940357. Retrieved 13 March 2024. ... Mir Jumla was given the title of Diwan-i-Kul or Grand Vizier, the dignity of Muazzam Khan (the magnificent Khan), and promoted to the rank of 6,000 horsemen in the Mughal army. That was not all. He was granted the privileges that went ...
  66. ^ Harish Kapur (19 June 2013). Jean-Baptiste Tavernier A Life (ebook). UK. p. 66. ISBN 9781481795951. Retrieved 8 March 2024.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  67. ^ a b Jack Ogden (8 May 2018). Diamonds An Early History of the King of Gems (ebook). Yale University Press. p. 222. ISBN 9780300235517. Retrieved 8 March 2024. Thevenot, 1687, 103
  68. ^ Francisco Bethencourt & Cátia A.P. Antunes (2022, p. 116)
  69. ^ Sarkar 1951, p. 243-244
  70. ^ Sarkar 1951, p. 243-244
  71. ^ Francisco Bethencourt & Cátia A.P. Antunes (2022, p. 116)
  72. ^ a b Abdul Karim (1992). History of Bengal: The reigns of Shah Jahan and Aurangzib. Institute of Bangladesh Studies, University of Rajshahi. p. 446; 449. Retrieved 8 March 2024.
  73. ^ Sarkar 1951, p. 277
  74. ^ Niccolò Manucci (1907). Irvine, William (ed.). Storia Do Mogor Or, Mogul India, 1653-1708 · Volume 4. Creative Media Partners, LLC. p. 430. Retrieved 8 March 2024.
  75. ^ Cátia A.P. Antunes; Francisco Bethencourt (31 January 2022). Merchant Cultures A Global Approach to Spaces, Representations and Worlds of Trade, 1500–1800 (ebook). January 31, 2022. p. 116. ISBN 9789004506572. Retrieved 8 March 2024. ... Pratte, who was appointed by Mir Jumla as an officer in the Mughal navy to provide war boats and procure the gunpowder needed ...
  76. ^ Muzaffar H. Syed 1905, p. 166
  77. ^ Muzaffar H. Syed 1905, p. 166
  78. ^ Sarkar 1951, p. 245
  79. ^ a b Basil Copleston Allen (2009). Eastern Bengal District Gazetteers Dacca. Logos Press. p. 30. ISBN 9788172681944. Retrieved 8 March 2024. road from Dacca to Khizrpur , vid Fatulla , which passes over this bridge . Finally , the road to Mymensingh and the .....; Mir Jumla , and fled to Dacca , whither he was pursued by Mir Jumla . He sent his son , Zainuddin , to arrange for ... Fatulla and the other opposite . These were probably built by him . The bridge at Pagla , Taver- nier tells us , was ...

References

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