Geography of Panama
 | |
| Continent | North America |
|---|---|
| Region | Caribbean |
| Coordinates | 9°00′N 80°00′W / 9.000°N 80.000°W |
| Area | Ranked 116th |
| • Total | 75,417 km2 (29,119 sq mi) |
| • Land | 98.57% |
| • Water | 1.43% |
| Coastline | 2,490 km (1,550 mi) |
| Borders | Total border: 555 km (345 mi) |
| Highest point | Volcán Barú 3,475 metres (11,401 ft) |
| Lowest point | Pacific Ocean 0 metres (0 ft) |
| Longest river | Chucunaque River 231 km (144 mi) |
| Largest lake | Gatun Lake 425 km2 (164 sq mi) |
| Exclusive economic zone | 335,646 km2 (129,863 sq mi) |
Panama is a country located in Caribbean, bordering both the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean, between Colombia and Costa Rica. Panama is located on the narrow and low Isthmus of Panama.
This S-shaped isthmus is situated between 7° and 10° north latitude and 77° and 83° west longitude. Panama encompasses approximately 75,417 km2 (29,119 sq mi). It is 772 km (480 mi) long, and between 60 and 177 kilometers (37 and 110 miles) wide.
Geology
[edit]The Cocos and Nazca plates formed in the Miocene. The Panama microplate is made of oceanic crust basalt, similar to the basalt plateau at the bottom of the Caribbean Sea. The isthmus of Panama formed due to convergent tectonics of the eastern Pacific subduction zone, which created a magmatic arc extending from southern North America.
The center of the isthmus, from Arenal Volcano in Costa Rica to El Valle volcano in Panama was uplifted during the subduction of the unusually thick Cocos Ridge oceanic crust, which also produced the four kilometer high Talamanca Range. The western edge of the Caribbean Plate—the Central American Volcanic Arc—also collided in the Neogene and was compressed as the South American Plate moved northward. The El Valle volcano is the easternmost stratovolcano in Central America. Dacite and andesite flows from five to 10 million years ago are the oldest rocks, followed by a period of quiet 3.4 million years ago and newer dacite domes and pyroclastic flows between 900,000 and 200,000 years ago. The volcano was the result of crust subduction.[1]
The combination of these forces produced the Isthmus of Panama and resulted in different sea surface salinity between the Pacific and Atlantic since 4.2 million years ago.[2] It also resulted in massive interchange of species between North and South America and brought global changes in climate and ocean circulation. The Bocas del Toro Archipelago on the western Caribbean coast records local stratigraphy through this period, with Pliocene to Pleistocene coral reef carbonates overlying Miocene basalt and siliclastic shale.[3]
In the remote southeastern Darién Province, crystalline basement rock of the San Blas Complex forms massifs in the northeast and southwest, dating to the Cretaceous, Paleocene and Eocene. These rocks and others in the north such as rhyolite, dacite, basaltic andesite, granodiorite and quartz diorite indicate that the region was a separate magmatic arc until 20 million years ago. In the south, pre-collision basement rocks include radiolarian chert, pillow basalt and diabase. Complex faulting and folding formed the Chucunaque-Tuira Basin includes three kilometers of sediments from the Miocene deposited during the collision with South America.[4]
Offshore of Colombia and western Panama, the Panama Basin formed between 27 and eight million years ago due to asymmetric seafloor spreading between the Nazca and Cocos plates. The Mapelo rift and the Yaquina graben in the eastern basin are remnants of old and now inactive spreading centers. Between 22 and 20 million years ago, hotspot volcanism generated the Carnegie, Cocos and Malpelo ridges.[5]
Elevation
[edit]
The dominant feature of Panama's landform is the central spine of mountains and hills that forms the continental divide. The divide does not form part of the great mountain chains of North America, and only near the Colombian border are there highlands related to the Andean system of South America. The spine that forms the divide is the highly eroded arch of an uplift from the sea bottom, in which peaks were formed by volcanic intrusions.
The western portion of the spine, the Cordillera Central, extends from Costa Rica to a low saddle near the Panama Canal. Within the Cordillera Central are three ranges. The lofty Cordillera de Talamanca extends east from Costa Rica and contains Panama's highest peak, Volcán Barú, at 3,475 meters (11,401 ft). Volcán Barú (or Volcán de Chiriquí) last erupted in 1550[6] and is the apex of a highland that includes Panama's richest soil. Further east are the lower Serranía de Tabasará and Sierra de Veraguas ranges, the latter extending towards the Panama Canal.
Climate
[edit]
Panama has a tropical climate. Temperatures are uniformly high—as is the relative humidity—and there is little seasonal variation. Diurnal ranges are low; on a typical dry-season day in the capital city, the early morning minimum may be 24 °C (75.2 °F) and the afternoon maximum 29 °C (84.2 °F). The temperature seldom exceeds 32 °C (89.6 °F) for more than a short time.
Temperatures on the Pacific side of the isthmus are somewhat lower than on the Caribbean, and breezes tend to rise after dusk in most parts of the country. Temperatures are markedly cooler in the higher parts of the mountain ranges, and frosts occur in the Cordillera de Talamanca in western Panama, with pipes having been frozen at as low as 7,000 ft (2,100 m) elevation.[7]
Climatic regions are determined less on the basis of temperature than on rainfall, which varies regionally from less than 1,300 millimeters (51.2 in) to more than 3,000 millimeters (118.1 in) per year. Almost all of the rain falls during the rainy season, which is usually from May through November, but varies in length from seven to nine months, with certain exception due to monsoons. The cycle of rainfall is determined primarily by two factors: moisture from the Caribbean, which is transported by north and northeast winds prevailing during most of the year, and the continental divide, which acts as a rain shield for the Pacific lowlands. Panama lies outside the Main Development Region for tropical cyclone activity.
A third influence that is present during the late autumn is the southwest wind off the Pacific. This wind brings some precipitation to the Pacific lowlands, modified by the highlands of the Península de Azuero, which form a partial rainshield for much of central Panama. Rainfall is generally much heavier on the Caribbean than on the Pacific side. The annual average in Panama City is little more than half of that in Colón.
Examples
[edit]Pacific Coast
| Climate data for Panama City (1971–2000) | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 31.7 (89.1) |
31.7 (89.1) |
32.2 (90.0) |
32.2 (90.0) |
31.1 (88.0) |
30.6 (87.1) |
30.6 (87.1) |
30.6 (87.1) |
30.0 (86.0) |
29.4 (84.9) |
30.0 (86.0) |
30.6 (87.1) |
30.9 (87.6) |
| Daily mean °C (°F) | 28.1 (82.6) |
28.1 (82.6) |
28.6 (83.5) |
28.9 (84.0) |
28.3 (82.9) |
27.8 (82.0) |
27.8 (82.0) |
27.8 (82.0) |
27.2 (81.0) |
27.0 (80.6) |
27.2 (81.0) |
27.5 (81.5) |
27.9 (82.1) |
| Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 24.4 (75.9) |
24.4 (75.9) |
25.0 (77.0) |
25.6 (78.1) |
25.6 (78.1) |
25.0 (77.0) |
25.0 (77.0) |
25.0 (77.0) |
24.4 (75.9) |
24.4 (75.9) |
24.4 (75.9) |
24.4 (75.9) |
24.8 (76.6) |
| Average rainfall mm (inches) | 29.3 (1.15) |
10.1 (0.40) |
13.1 (0.52) |
64.7 (2.55) |
225.1 (8.86) |
235.0 (9.25) |
168.5 (6.63) |
219.9 (8.66) |
253.9 (10.00) |
330.7 (13.02) |
252.3 (9.93) |
104.6 (4.12) |
1,907.2 (75.09) |
| Average rainy days (≥ 0.1 mm) | 2.9 | 1.3 | 1.4 | 4.9 | 15.0 | 16.0 | 14.0 | 15.0 | 17.0 | 20.0 | 16.0 | 7.5 | 131.0 |
| Mean monthly sunshine hours | 228.9 | 245.2 | 183.9 | 173.1 | 108.5 | 116.3 | 106.1 | 118.1 | 99.2 | 103.9 | 139.8 | 120.5 | 1,743.5 |
| Source 1: World Meteorological Organization[8] | |||||||||||||
| Source 2: ETESA (sunshine data recorded at Albrook Field)[9] | |||||||||||||
Caribbean coast
| Climate data for Colón | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 29 (84) |
29 (84) |
29 (85) |
30 (86) |
31 (87) |
30 (86) |
29 (85) |
29 (85) |
31 (87) |
30 (86) |
29 (84) |
29 (84) |
29 (85) |
| Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 24 (76) |
24 (76) |
24 (76) |
25 (77) |
24 (76) |
24 (75) |
24 (75) |
24 (75) |
24 (75) |
23 (74) |
23 (74) |
24 (75) |
24 (75) |
| Average rainfall mm (inches) | 110 (4.3) |
51 (2.0) |
36 (1.4) |
94 (3.7) |
270 (10.8) |
370 (14.5) |
420 (16.5) |
420 (16.4) |
290 (11.5) |
470 (18.4) |
620 (24.4) |
320 (12.6) |
3,471 (136.5) |
| Source: Weatherbase[10] | |||||||||||||
Interior lowlands
| Climate data for Santiago de Veraguas (1991–2020) | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Record high °C (°F) | 37.0 (98.6) |
38.0 (100.4) |
39.4 (102.9) |
39.4 (102.9) |
38.4 (101.1) |
36.6 (97.9) |
36.4 (97.5) |
35.6 (96.1) |
36.4 (97.5) |
35.2 (95.4) |
35.2 (95.4) |
36.0 (96.8) |
39.4 (102.9) |
| Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 33.0 (91.4) |
34.4 (93.9) |
35.3 (95.5) |
35.1 (95.2) |
33.1 (91.6) |
32.0 (89.6) |
31.9 (89.4) |
32.0 (89.6) |
31.8 (89.2) |
30.9 (87.6) |
31.0 (87.8) |
32.0 (89.6) |
32.7 (90.9) |
| Daily mean °C (°F) | 26.8 (80.2) |
27.7 (81.9) |
28.3 (82.9) |
28.7 (83.7) |
28.0 (82.4) |
27.4 (81.3) |
27.2 (81.0) |
27.3 (81.1) |
27.0 (80.6) |
26.7 (80.1) |
26.7 (80.1) |
26.8 (80.2) |
27.4 (81.3) |
| Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 20.5 (68.9) |
20.9 (69.6) |
21.3 (70.3) |
22.3 (72.1) |
23.0 (73.4) |
22.9 (73.2) |
22.5 (72.5) |
22.6 (72.7) |
22.2 (72.0) |
22.4 (72.3) |
22.3 (72.1) |
21.5 (70.7) |
22.0 (71.6) |
| Record low °C (°F) | 15.6 (60.1) |
15.6 (60.1) |
16.6 (61.9) |
16.8 (62.2) |
18.0 (64.4) |
19.4 (66.9) |
18.0 (64.4) |
18.8 (65.8) |
18.2 (64.8) |
17.8 (64.0) |
18.8 (65.8) |
15.2 (59.4) |
15.2 (59.4) |
| Average rainfall mm (inches) | 22.5 (0.89) |
16.7 (0.66) |
20.9 (0.82) |
96.7 (3.81) |
313.7 (12.35) |
300.8 (11.84) |
243.0 (9.57) |
317.3 (12.49) |
342.4 (13.48) |
395.5 (15.57) |
259.3 (10.21) |
82.7 (3.26) |
2,411.5 (94.95) |
| Average rainy days (≥ 0.1 mm) | 2.3 | 1.1 | 1.8 | 6.2 | 17 | 18 | 15 | 18 | 20 | 21 | 17 | 6.6 | 144 |
| Mean monthly sunshine hours | 235.1 | 243.3 | 247.6 | 202.6 | 160.0 | 124.6 | 133.2 | 139.1 | 128.0 | 129.8 | 139.3 | 182.2 | 2,064.8 |
| Source 1: World Meteorological Organization[11] | |||||||||||||
| Source 2: [12] [13] | |||||||||||||
| Climate data for David, Chiriquí | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 32.2 (90.0) |
33.3 (91.9) |
33.9 (93.0) |
33.3 (91.9) |
31.7 (89.1) |
31.1 (88.0) |
30.6 (87.1) |
30.6 (87.1) |
30.6 (87.1) |
30.0 (86.0) |
30.0 (86.0) |
31.1 (88.0) |
31.5 (88.7) |
| Daily mean °C (°F) | 26.9 (80.4) |
27.8 (82.0) |
28.4 (83.1) |
28.3 (82.9) |
27.5 (81.5) |
27.2 (81.0) |
27.0 (80.6) |
26.7 (80.1) |
26.7 (80.1) |
26.4 (79.5) |
26.4 (79.5) |
26.7 (80.1) |
27.2 (80.9) |
| Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 21.7 (71.1) |
22.2 (72.0) |
22.8 (73.0) |
23.3 (73.9) |
23.3 (73.9) |
23.3 (73.9) |
23.3 (73.9) |
22.8 (73.0) |
22.8 (73.0) |
22.8 (73.0) |
22.8 (73.0) |
22.2 (72.0) |
22.8 (73.0) |
| Average rainfall mm (inches) | 33.3 (1.31) |
19.3 (0.76) |
35.5 (1.40) |
102.5 (4.04) |
297.0 (11.69) |
322.6 (12.70) |
289.8 (11.41) |
340.3 (13.40) |
406.6 (16.01) |
400.5 (15.77) |
295.4 (11.63) |
77.4 (3.05) |
2,620.2 (103.17) |
| Average relative humidity (%) | 67.7 | 62.6 | 62.4 | 69.6 | 79.5 | 81.1 | 80.4 | 81.1 | 82.1 | 83.8 | 82.8 | 75.5 | 75.7 |
| Mean monthly sunshine hours | 275.5 | 262.0 | 270.5 | 216.2 | 160.4 | 128.3 | 141.1 | 148.6 | 135.4 | 139.5 | 154.5 | 218.7 | 2,250.7 |
| Source 1: World Meteorological Organisation (UN) (30 yr record),[14] | |||||||||||||
| Source 2: ETESA (humidity and sun values)[15] | |||||||||||||
Highlands
| Climate data for Boquete | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Record high °C (°F) | 31.0 (87.8) |
30.2 (86.4) |
31.0 (87.8) |
31.0 (87.8) |
30.5 (86.9) |
29.5 (85.1) |
30.6 (87.1) |
29.8 (85.6) |
29.5 (85.1) |
28.8 (83.8) |
30.4 (86.7) |
29.2 (84.6) |
31.0 (87.8) |
| Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 23.2 (73.8) |
23.2 (73.8) |
24.3 (75.7) |
24.3 (75.7) |
24.3 (75.7) |
24.0 (75.2) |
23.7 (74.7) |
23.7 (74.7) |
23.4 (74.1) |
23.5 (74.3) |
23.2 (73.8) |
22.7 (72.9) |
23.6 (74.5) |
| Daily mean °C (°F) | 19.5 (67.1) |
19.2 (66.6) |
20.2 (68.4) |
20.3 (68.5) |
20.6 (69.1) |
20.6 (69.1) |
20.4 (68.7) |
20.4 (68.7) |
20.0 (68.0) |
20.0 (68.0) |
19.8 (67.6) |
19.2 (66.6) |
20.0 (68.0) |
| Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 15.8 (60.4) |
15.2 (59.4) |
16.2 (61.2) |
16.3 (61.3) |
16.9 (62.4) |
17.1 (62.8) |
17.1 (62.8) |
17.0 (62.6) |
16.7 (62.1) |
16.5 (61.7) |
16.4 (61.5) |
15.7 (60.3) |
16.4 (61.5) |
| Record low °C (°F) | 4.0 (39.2) |
4.6 (40.3) |
4.0 (39.2) |
3.4 (38.1) |
6.0 (42.8) |
5.0 (41.0) |
4.0 (39.2) |
4.2 (39.6) |
2.8 (37.0) |
4.2 (39.6) |
3.0 (37.4) |
3.0 (37.4) |
2.8 (37.0) |
| Average rainfall mm (inches) | 52.3 (2.06) |
26.6 (1.05) |
36.7 (1.44) |
76.1 (3.00) |
284.2 (11.19) |
317.2 (12.49) |
224.5 (8.84) |
293.8 (11.57) |
397.4 (15.65) |
411.7 (16.21) |
219.8 (8.65) |
101.3 (3.99) |
2,441.6 (96.14) |
| Source 1: Climates to travel [16] | |||||||||||||
| Source 2: IMHPA (rainfall and temperature records)[17] | |||||||||||||
Vegetation
[edit]
Panama's tropical environment supports an abundance of plants. Forests dominate, interrupted in places by grasslands, scrub, and crops. Nearly 40 percent of Panama is wooded. Deforestation is a continuing threat to the rain-drenched woodlands. Tree cover has been reduced by more than 50 percent since the 1940s.
Subsistence farming, widely practiced from the northeastern jungles to the southwestern grasslands, consists largely of corn, bean, and tuber plots. Mangrove swamps occur along parts of both coasts, with banana plantations occupying deltas near Costa Rica. In many places, a multi-canopied rain forest abuts the swamp on one side of Panama and increases to the lower reaches of slopes in the other.
Harbors
[edit]The Caribbean coastline is marked by several good natural harbors. The numerous islands of the Archipiélago de Bocas del Toro, near the Beaches of Costa Rica, provide an extensive natural roadstead and shield the banana port of Almirante. The over 350 San Blas Islands, near Colombia, are strung out for more than 160 km (99 mi) along the sheltered Caribbean coastline.
The major port on the Pacific coastline is Balboa. The principal islands are those of the Archipiélago de las Perlas in the middle of the Gulf of Panama, the penal colony on the Isla de Coiba in the Golfo de Chiriquí, and the decorative island of Taboga, a tourist attraction that can be seen from Panama City. In all, there are some 1,000 islands off the Pacific coast.
The Pacific coastal waters are extraordinarily shallow. Depths of 180 metres (591 ft) are reached only outside the perimeters of both the Gulf of Panama and the Golfo de Chiriquí, and wide mud flats extend up to 70 km (43 mi) seaward from the coastlines. As a consequence, the tidal range is extreme. A variation of about 70 centimetres (2.3 ft) between high and low water on the Caribbean coast contrasts sharply with over 700 cm (23 ft) on the Pacific coast, and some 130 km (81 mi) up the Río Tuira, the tidal range is still over 500 cm (16 ft). A recent global remote sensing analysis suggested that there were 1,016 km2 of tidal flats in Panama, making it the 32nd ranked country in terms of tidal flat area.[18]
Waterways
[edit]Nearly 500 rivers lace Panama's rugged landscape. Mostly unnavigable, many originate as swift highland streams, meander in valleys, and form coastal deltas. The Río Chepo and the Río Chagres are sources of hydroelectric power. The Kampia lake and Madden Lake (also filled with water from the Río Chagres) provide hydroelectricity for the area of the former Canal Zone.
More than 300 rivers empty into the Pacific. These Pacific-oriented rivers are longer and slower running than those of the Caribbean side. Their basins are also more extensive. One of the longest is the Río Tuira which flows into the Golfo de San Miguel and is the nation's only river navigable by larger vessels.
Administrative divisions
[edit]
Panama is divided into 10 provinces, plus several indigenous comarcas. The provinces are divided into districts, which in turn are subdivided into sections called corregimientos. Configurations of the corregimientos are changed periodically to accommodate population changes as revealed in the census reports.
General facts
[edit] | This article may need to be rewritten to comply with Wikipedia's quality standards, as section. (December 2020) |
Geographic coordinates: 9°00′N 80°00′W / 9.000°N 80.000°W
Map references: Northern South America, the Caribbean and sometimes Central America
Area:
total:
75,420 km2
land:
74,340 km2
water:
1,080 km2
Land boundaries:
total:
555 km
border countries:
Colombia 225 km, Costa Rica 330 km
Coastline: 2,490 km
Maritime claims:
territorial sea:
12 nautical miles (22 kilometres)
contiguous zone:
24 nautical miles (44 kilometres)
exclusive economic zone:
335,646 km2 (129,863 sq mi) and 200 nautical miles (370 kilometres) or edge of continental margin
Climate: tropical maritime; hot, humid, cloudy; prolonged rainy season (May to January), short dry season (January to May)
Terrain: interior mostly steep, rugged mountains and dissected, upland plains; coastal areas largely plains and rolling hills
Extreme points:
Northernmost point: Point Manzanillo
Southernmost point: Punta Mariato, Cerro Hoya National Park, Veraguas
Westernmost point: Border with Costa Rica, Chiriquí Province
Easternmost point: Border with Colombia, Darién Province
Lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
Highest point: Volcan de Chiriqui 3,475 m
Natural resources: copper, mahogany forests, shrimp, hydropower
Land use:
arable land:
7.16%
permanent crops:
2.51%
other:
90.33% (2011)
Irrigated land: 346.2 km2 (2003)
Total renewable water resources: 148 km3 (2011)
Natural hazards: occasional severe storms and forest fires in the Darien area, earthquakes
Environment - current issues: water pollution from agricultural runoff threatens fishery resources; deforestation of tropical rain forest; land degradation and soil erosion threatens siltation of Panama Canal; air pollution in urban areas; mining threatens natural resources
Environment - international agreements:
party to:
Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling
signed, but not ratified:
Marine Life Conservation
Geography - note: strategic location at eastern end of Central America; controls Panama Canal that links Atlantic Ocean via Caribbean Sea with Pacific Ocean. Central Panama has the unusual distinction of having the sun rise over the Pacific and set over the Atlantic.
References
[edit]- ^ Defant, Mare J.; Clark, Lee F.; Stewart, Robert H.; Drummond, Mark S.; de Boer, Jelle Z.; Maury, René C.; Bellon, Hervé; Jackson, Thomas E.; Restrepo, Juan F. (1 January 1991). "Andesite and dacite genesis via contrasting processes: the geology and geochemistry of El Valle Volcano, Panama". Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology. 106 (3): 309–324. Bibcode:1991CoMP..106..309D. doi:10.1007/bf00324560. S2CID 130132647.
- ^ Haug, Gerald H.; Tiedemann, Ralf; Zahn, Rainer; Ravelo, A. Christina (9 November 2018). "Role of Panama uplift on oceanic freshwater balance". Geology. 29 (3): 207. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(2001)029<0207:ROPUOO>2.0.CO;2.
- ^ A. G. Coates, D. F. McNeill, M-P. Aubry, W. A. Berggren, L. S. Collins (2005). "An Introduction to the Geology of the Bocas del Toro Archipelago, Panama" (PDF). Caribbean Journal of Science. 41 (3): 374–391. Retrieved 2018-11-09.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Coates, A. G.; Collins, L. S.; Aubry, M.-P.; Berggren, W. A. (1 November 2004). "The Geology of the Darien, Panama, and the late Miocene-Pliocene collision of the Panama arc with northwestern South America". Geological Society of America Bulletin. 116 (11–12): 1327–1344. Bibcode:2004GSAB..116.1327C. doi:10.1130/B25275.1.
- ^ LONSDALE, PETER; KLITGORD, KIM D. (9 November 1978). "Structure and tectonic history of the eastern Panama Basin". Geological Society of America Bulletin. 89 (7): 981. Bibcode:1978GSAB...89..981L. doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1978)89<981:SATHOT>2.0.CO;2.
- ^ "Barú". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 27 April 2021.
- ^ "An Ecological Survey of the proposed Volcan Baru National Park, Republic of Panama" (PDF). International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 16 Oct 2024.
- ^ "World Weather Information Service – Panama City". World Meteorological Organization. Retrieved 10 April 2013.
- ^ "Datos Históricos : Estación Albrook Field" (in Spanish). Empresa de Transmisión Eléctrica S.A. Retrieved 10 April 2013.
- ^ "Weatherbase: Historical Weather for Colon, Panama". Weatherbase. 2011. Retrieved on November 24, 2011.
- ^ "World Weather Information Service". World Meteorological Organization. Retrieved 18 August 2024.
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- ^ Murray, N.J.; Phinn, S.R.; DeWitt, M.; Ferrari, R.; Johnston, R.; Lyons, M.B.; Clinton, N.; Thau, D.; Fuller, R.A. (2019). "The global distribution and trajectory of tidal flats". Nature. 565 (7738): 222–225. doi:10.1038/s41586-018-0805-8. PMID 30568300. S2CID 56481043.
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. Country Studies. Federal Research Division.- This article incorporates public domain material from The World Factbook. CIA.
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