Jump to content

List of causes of death by rate

Checked
Page protected with pending changes
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Causes of death)

Further information: Cause of death

Leading cause of death (2016) (world)
Leading cause of death (2016) (world)

The following is a list of the causes of human deaths worldwide for different years arranged by their associated mortality rates. In 2002, there were about 57 million deaths. In 2005, according to the World Health Organization (WHO) using the International Classification of Diseases (ICD), about 58 million people died.[1] In 2010, according to the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation, 52.8 million people died.[2] In 2016, the WHO recorded 56.7 million deaths[3] with the leading cause of death as cardiovascular disease causing more than 17 million deaths (about 31% of the total) as shown in the chart to the side. In 2021, there were approx. 68 million deaths worldwide, as per WHO report.[4]

Some causes listed include deaths also included in more specific subordinate causes, and some causes are omitted, so the percentages may only sum approximately to 100%. The causes listed are relatively immediate medical causes, but the ultimate cause of death might be described differently. For example, tobacco smoking often causes lung disease or cancer, and alcohol use disorder can cause liver failure or a motor vehicle accident. For statistics on preventable ultimate causes, see preventable causes of death.

Besides frequency, other measures to compare, consider, and monitor trends of causes of deaths include disability-adjusted life year (DALY) and years of potential life lost (YPLL).

By frequency

[edit]

Age standardized death rate, per 100,000, by cause, in 2017, and percentage change 2007–2017.[5]

Overview table

[edit]

This first table gives a convenient overview of the general categories and broad causes. The leading cause is cardiovascular disease at 31.59% of all deaths.

Rate of death by cause. Percent of all deaths
Category Cause Percent Percent
I. Communicable, maternal, neonatal, and nutritional disorders Respiratory infections and tuberculosis 6.85 19.49%
Enteric infections 3.31
Sexually transmitted infections 1.88
Tropical diseases and malaria 1.37
Other infectious diseases 1.57
Maternal and neonatal disorders 4.00
Nutritional deficiencies 0.52
II. Non-communicable diseases Cardiovascular diseases 31.59 72.67%
Neoplasms 16.43
Chronic respiratory diseases 6.97
Digestive diseases 4.11
Neurological disorders 5.84
Substance abuse 0.58
Diabetes and kidney diseases 4.55
Skin diseases 0.18
Musculoskeletal disorders 0.22
Other non-communicable 2.22
III. Injuries Transport injuries 2.30 7.85%
Unintentional injuries 3.23
Self harm and violence 2.32
Total 100% 100%

Developed vs. developing economies

[edit]
Global number of deaths (A) and YLLs (B), by bacterial pathogen (of 33) and GBD super-region, 2019[6]

Top causes of death, according to the World Health Organization report for the calendar year 2001:[7]

Causes of death in developing countries Number of deaths Causes of death in developed countries Number of deaths
HIV-AIDS 2,678,000 Ischaemic heart disease 3,512,000
Lower respiratory infections 2,643,000 Cerebrovascular disease 3,346,000
Ischaemic heart disease 2,484,000 Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease 1,829,000
Diarrhea 1,793,000 Lower respiratory infections 1,180,000
Cerebrovascular disease 1,381,000 Lung cancer 938,000
Childhood diseases 1,217,000 Car crash 669,000
Malaria 1,103,000 Stomach cancer 657,000
Tuberculosis 1,021,000 Hypertensive heart disease 635,000
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease 748,000 Tuberculosis 571,000
Measles 674,000 Suicide 499,000

Detailed table

[edit]

This table gives a more detailed and specific breakdown of the causes for the year 2017. Figures have a margin of error of about 5% on average.

Age-standardised Death Rate (per 100,000) in 2017
Cause Rate %
total		 %
change
2007–2017
All causes 737.7 100% −14.2
I. Communicable, maternal, neonatal
and nutritional disorders 		143.8 19.49% −31.8
Respiratory infections and tuberculosis 50.5 6.85% −24.5
Tuberculosis 14.9 2.02% −31.4
Drug-susceptible tuberculosis 13.2 1.79% −31.9
Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis without extensive drug resistance 1.6 0.22% −28.6
Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis 0.2 0.03% −7.7
Lower respiratory infections 35.4 4.80% −21.1
Upper respiratory infections 0.1 0.01% −42.1
Otitis media 0.0 0.00% −50.4
Enteric infections 24.4 3.31% −29.9
Diarrhoeal diseases 21.6 2.93% −30.2
Typhoid and paratyphoid 1.9 0.26% −27.8
(Typhoid fever) 1.6 0.22% −29.1
(Paratyphoid fever) 0.3 0.04% −18.9
iNTS 0.8 0.11% −24.8
Other intestinal infectious diseases 0.0 0.00% −44.7
Sexually transmitted infections 13.9 1.88% −53.6
HIV/AIDS 12.1 1.64% −56.5
HIV/AIDS – Drug-susceptible Tuberculosis 2.5 0.34% −61.1
HIV/AIDS – Multidrug-resistant Tuberculosis
without extensive drug resistance		 0.3 0.04% −58.1
HIV/AIDS – Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis 0.0 0.00% −20.3
HIV/AIDS resulting in other diseases 9.3 1.26% −55.1
Sexually transmitted infections excluding HIV 1.8 0.24% −14.4
Syphilis 1.7 0.23% −14.3
Chlamydial infection 0.0 0.00% −15.2
Gonococcal infection 0.0 0.00% −14.9
Other sexually transmitted infections 0.0 0.00% −15.9
Neglected tropical diseases and malaria 10.1 1.37% −36.1
Malaria 8.7 1.18% −37.3
Chagas disease 0.1 0.01% −21.1
Leishmaniasis 0.1 0.01% −67.8
(Visceral leishmaniasis) 0.1 0.01% −67.8
African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness) 0.0 0.00% −82.8
Schistosomiasis 0.1 0.01% −28.5
Cysticercosis 0.0 0.00% −27.3
Cystic echinococcosis 0.0 0.00% −41.9
Dengue 0.5 0.07% 40.7
Yellow fever 0.1 0.01% −23.3
Rabies 0.2 0.03% −54.8
Intestinal nematode infections 0.0 0.00% −47.2
(Ascariasis) 0.0 0.00% −47.2
Ebola virus disease 0.0 0.00% −98.4
Zika virus disease 0.0 0.00% –
Other neglected tropical diseases 0.2 0.03% −3.7
Other infectious diseases 11.6 1.57% −33.8
Meningitis 4.0 0.54% −27.8
Pneumococcal meningitis 0.6 0.08% −22.4
H influenzae type B meningitis 1.1 0.15% −40.6
Meningococcal infection 0.4 0.05% −37.1
Other meningitis 2.0 0.27% −17.3
Encephalitis 1.2 0.16% −14.3
Diphtheria 0.1 0.01% −28.6
Whooping cough (pertussis) 1.4 0.19% −27.1
Tetanus 0.5 0.07% −59.6
Measles 1.4 0.19% −59.3
Varicella (chickenpox) and herpes zoster (shingles) 0.2 0.03% −29.2
Acute hepatitis 1.6 0.22% −24.5
Acute hepatitis A 0.3 0.04% −38.7
Acute hepatitis B 1.1 0.15% −19.6
Acute hepatitis C 0.0 0.00% −32.1
Acute hepatitis E 0.2 0.03% −25.8
Other unspecified infectious diseases 1.1 0.15% −13.4
Maternal and neonatal disorders 29.5 4.00% −26.6
Maternal disorders 2.5 0.34% −30.7
Maternal haemorrhage 0.5 0.07% −56.4
Maternal sepsis and other pregnancy related infections 0.3 0.04% −33.5
Maternal hypertensive disorders 0.4 0.05% −13.0
Maternal obstructed labour and uterine rupture 0.2 0.03% −25.2
Maternal abortive outcome 0.2 0.03% −15.7
Ectopic pregnancy 0.1 0.01% −19.2
Indirect maternal deaths 0.4 0.05% −12.5
Late maternal deaths 0.0 0.00% −9.5
Maternal deaths aggravated by HIV/AIDS 0.0 0.00% −32.1
Other maternal disorders 0.3 0.04% −16.5
Neonatal disorders 27.1 3.67% −26.2
Neonatal preterm birth 9.9 1.34% −28.1
Neonatal encephalopathy due to birth asphyxia and trauma 8.1 1.10% −26.5
Neonatal sepsis and other neonatal infections 3.1 0.42% −14.4
Hemolytic disease and other neonatal jaundice 0.7 0.09% −39.3
Other neonatal disorders 5.3 0.72% −25.7
Nutritional deficiencies 3.8 0.52% −33.6
Protein-energy malnutrition 3.3 0.45% −34.6
Other nutritional deficiencies 0.5 0.07% −25.8
II. Non-communicable diseases 536.1 72.67% −7.9
Cardiovascular diseases 233.1 31.60% −10.3
Rheumatic heart disease 3.7 0.50% −21.3
Ischaemic heart disease 116.9 15.85% −9.7
Stroke 80.5 10.91% −13.6
Ischaemic stroke 36.6 4.96% −11.8
Intracerebral hemorrhage 38.2 5.18% −15.7
Subarachnoid hemorrhage 5.7 0.77% −9.4
Hypertensive heart disease 12.3 1.67% 7.5
Non-rheumatic valvular heart disease 2.0 0.27% −5.3
Non-rheumatic calcific aortic valve disease 1.4 0.19% −1.0
Non-rheumatic degenerative mitral valve disease 0.5 0.07% −14.0
Other non-rheumatic valve diseases 0.1 0.01% −17.8
Cardiomyopathy and myocarditis 4.8 0.65% −16.6
Myocarditis 0.6 0.08% −13.3
Alcoholic cardiomyopathy 1.1 0.15% −40.5
Other cardiomyopathy 3.1 0.42% −3.6
Atrial fibrillation and flutter 4.0 0.54% 2.6
Aortic aneurysm 2.2 0.30% −8.5
Peripheral vascular disease 1.0 0.14% 10.5
Endocarditis 1.1 0.15% 1.0
Other cardiovascular and circulatory diseases 4.7 0.64% −7.9
Neoplasms 121.2 16.43% −4.4
Lip and oral cavity cancer 2.4 0.33% 4.0
Nasopharynx cancer 0.9 0.12% −3.0
Other pharynx cancer 1.4 0.19% 7.9
Oesophageal cancer 5.5 0.75% −14.5
Stomach cancer 11.0 1.49% −17.1
Colon and rectum cancer 11.5 1.56% −4.3
Liver cancer 10.2 1.38% −2.5
(Liver cancer due to hepatitis B) 4.0 0.54% −6.2
(Liver cancer due to hepatitis C) 3.0 0.41% −2.1
(Liver cancer due to alcohol use) 1.6 0.22% 0.6
(Liver cancer due to NASH) 0.8 0.11% 7.6
(Liver cancer due to other causes) 0.8 0.11% −0.9
Gallbladder and biliary tract cancer 2.2 0.30% −6.7
Pancreatic cancer 5.6 0.76% 4.8
Larynx cancer 1.6 0.22% −7.7
Tracheal, bronchus, and lung cancer 23.7 3.21% −2.0
Malignant skin melanoma 0.8 0.11% −5.1
Non-melanoma skin cancer 0.8 0.11% 2.7
(Non-melanoma skin cancer (squamous-cell carcinoma)) 0.8 0.11% 2.7
Breast cancer 7.6 1.03% −2.6
Cervical cancer 3.2 0.43% −7.2
Uterine cancer 1.1 0.15% −10.4
Ovarian cancer 2.2 0.30% −1.0
Prostate cancer 5.5 0.75% −2.5
Testicular cancer 0.1 0.01% −9.4
Kidney cancer 1.8 0.24% −1.3
Bladder cancer 2.6 0.35% −5.4
Brain and nervous system cancer 3.1 0.42% 3.8
Thyroid cancer 0.5 0.07% −1.2
Mesothelioma 0.4 0.05% −3.4
Hodgkin lymphoma 0.4 0.05% −16.8
Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma 3.2 0.43% 0.1
Multiple myeloma 1.4 0.19% −0.4
Leukaemia 4.5 0.61% −9.6
Acute lymphoid leukaemia 0.7 0.09% −1.5
Chronic lymphoid leukaemia 0.5 0.07% −10.3
Acute myeloid leukaemia 1.3 0.18% −1.0
Chronic myeloid leukaemia 0.3 0.04% −19.9
Other leukaemia 1.8 0.24% −15.6
Other malignant cancers 4.6 0.62% 0.1
Other neoplasms 1.3 0.18% 7.4
Myelodysplastic, myeloproliferative and
other hematopoietic neoplasms		 1.3 0.18% 7.1
Other benign and in situ neoplasms 0.1 0.01% 15.5
Chronic respiratory diseases 51.4 6.97% −14.2
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease 42.2 5.72% −13.6
Pneumoconiosis 0.3 0.04% −16.7
(Silicosis) 0.1 0.01% −15.5
(Asbestosis) 0.0 0.00% −8.3
(Coal workers pneumoconiosis) 0.0 0.00% −26.6
(Other pneumoconiosis) 0.0 0.00% −17.5
Asthma 6.3 0.85% −23.9
Interstitial lung disease and pulmonary sarcoidosis 1.9 0.26% 11.4
Other chronic respiratory diseases 0.7 0.09% −3.2
Digestive diseases 30.3 4.11% −10.7
Cirrhosis and other chronic liver diseases 16.5 2.24% −9.7
Cirrhosis and other chronic liver diseases due to hepatitis B 4.8 0.65% −14.3
Cirrhosis and other chronic liver diseases due to hepatitis C 4.2 0.57% −8.4
Cirrhosis and other chronic liver diseases due to alcohol use 4.1 0.56% −8.8
Cirrhosis due to NASH 1.5 0.20% −1.4
Cirrhosis and other chronic liver diseases due to other causes 1.9 0.26% −8.6
Upper digestive system diseases 3.8 0.52% −21.6
Peptic ulcer disease 3.1 0.42% −23.5
Gastritis and duodenitis 0.7 0.09% −11.7
Appendicitis 0.6 0.08% −17.0
Paralytic ileus and intestinal obstruction 3.2 0.43% −5.8
Inguinal, femoral, and abdominal hernia 0.6 0.08% −8.9
Inflammatory bowel disease 0.5 0.07% −10.5
Vascular intestinal disorders 1.3 0.18% −10.2
Gallbladder and biliary diseases 1.5 0.20% −5.0
Pancreatitis 1.3 0.18% −5.7
Other digestive diseases 1.2 0.16% −7.1
Neurological disorders 43.1 5.84% 0.1
Alzheimer's disease and other dementias 35.4 4.80% 0.6
Parkinson's disease 4.6 0.62% 0.8
Epilepsy 1.7 0.23% −10.7
Multiple sclerosis 0.3 0.04% −3.9
Motor neuron disease 0.4 0.05% 1.2
Other neurological disorders 0.7 0.09% 2.0
Mental disorders 0.0 0.00% 7.5
Eating disorders 0.0 0.00% 7.5
Anorexia nervosa 0.0 0.00% 5.5
Bulimia nervosa 0.0 0.00% 13.5
Substance use disorders 4.3 0.58% 2.0
Alcohol use disorders 2.3 0.31% −16.5
Drug use disorders 2.1 0.28% 34.1
Opioid use disorders 1.4 0.19% 49.4
Cocaine use disorders 0.1 0.01% 19.6
Amphetamine use disorders 0.1 0.01% 8.7
Other drug use disorders 0.6 0.08% 11.3
Diabetes and kidney diseases 33.6 4.55% 1.3
Diabetes mellitus 17.5 2.37% 1.2
Diabetes mellitus type 1 4.3 0.58% −11.0
Diabetes mellitus type 2 13.2 1.79% 5.9
Chronic kidney disease 15.9 2.16% 1.5
Chronic kidney disease due to diabetes mellitus type 1 0.9 0.12% −1.2
Chronic kidney disease due to diabetes mellitus type 2 4.5 0.61% 4.2
Chronic kidney disease due to hypertension 4.6 0.62% 3.2
Chronic kidney disease due to glomerulonephritis 2.4 0.33% −1.3
Chronic kidney disease due to other and unspecified causes 3.4 0.46% −1.4
Acute glomerulonephritis 0.1 0.01% −9.5
Skin and subcutaneous diseases 1.3 0.18% 8.1
Bacterial skin diseases 1.0 0.14% 12.7
(Cellulitis) 0.2 0.03% 19.6
(Pyoderma) 0.8 0.11% 10.5
Decubitus ulcer 0.3 0.04% −5.1
Other skin and subcutaneous diseases 0.1 0.01% 3.3
Musculoskeletal disorders 1.6 0.22% −0.1
Rheumatoid arthritis 0.6 0.08% −5.9
Other musculoskeletal disorders 1.0 0.14% 3.9
Other non-communicable diseases 16.3 2.21% −11.2
Congenital anomalies 8.7 1.18% −18.2
Neural tube defects 0.9 0.12% −16.5
Congenital heart anomalies 3.9 0.53% −21.8
Orofacial clefts 0.1 0.01% −41.9
Down syndrome 0.4 0.05% −5.2
Other chromosomal abnormalities 0.3 0.04% 0.3
Congenital musculoskeletal and limb anomalies 0.2 0.03% −12.8
Urogenital congenital anomalies 0.2 0.03% −8.5
Digestive congenital anomalies 0.8 0.11% −19.3
Other congenital anomalies 2.1 0.28% −15.9
Urinary diseases and male infertility 3.6 0.49% 5.7
Urinary tract infections 2.7 0.37% 10.9
Urolithiasis (Kidney stone disease) 0.2 0.03% −1.2
Other urinary diseases 0.7 0.09% −9.9
Gynecological diseases 0.1 0.01% −2.6
Uterine fibroids 0.0 0.00% 8.1
Polycystic ovarian syndrome 0.0 0.00% 1.0
Endometriosis 0.0 0.00% −3.2
Genital prolapse 0.0 0.00% −24.1
Other gynecological diseases 0.1 0.01% −3.6
Hemoglobinopathies and hemolytic anaemias 1.4 0.19% −11.3
Thalassemias 0.1 0.01% −27.9
Sickle cell disorders 0.5 0.07% −3.1
G6PD deficiency 0.2 0.03% −7.1
Other hemoglobinopathies and hemolytic anaemias 0.6 0.08% −16.1
Endocrine, metabolic, blood, and immune disorders 1.9 0.26% 0.8
Sudden infant death syndrome 0.6 0.08% −20.2
III. Injuries 57.9 7.85% −13.7
Transport injuries 17.0 2.30% −17.0
Road injuries 15.8 2.14% −17.1
Pedestrian road injuries 6.2 0.84% −21.4
Cyclist road injuries 0.9 0.12% −8.8
Motorcyclist road injuries 2.9 0.39% −12.4
Motor vehicle road injuries 5.8 0.79% −15.6
Other road injuries 0.1 0.01% −19.4
Other transport injuries 1.2 0.16% −15.5
Unintentional injuries 23.8 3.23% −15.3
Falls 9.2 1.25% −2.8
Drowning 4.0 0.54% −27.3
Fire, heat, and hot substances 1.6 0.22% −22.9
Poisonings 0.9 0.12% −20.8
(Poisoning by carbon monoxide) 0.5 0.07% −26.6
(Poisoning by other means) 0.5 0.07% −14.4
Exposure to mechanical forces 1.8 0.24% −20.3
(Unintentional firearm injuries) 0.3 0.04% −16.4
(Other exposure to mechanical forces) 1.5 0.20% −21.0
Adverse effects of medical treatment 1.6 0.22% −6.2
Animal contact 1.1 0.15% −16.0
(Venomous animal contact) 0.9 0.12% −16.0
(Non-venomous animal contact) 0.1 0.01% −16.1
Foreign body 1.7 0.23% −14.1
(Pulmonary aspiration and foreign body in airway) 1.6 0.22% −13.9
(Foreign body in other body part) 0.1 0.01% −15.8
Environmental heat and cold exposure 0.7 0.09% −29.4
Exposure to forces of nature 0.1 0.01% −45.8
Other unintentional injuries 1.2 0.16% −25.8
Self-harm and interpersonal violence 17.1 2.32% −7.6
Self-harm 10.0 1.36% −14.8
Self-harm by firearm 0.8 0.11% −10.3
Self-harm by other specified means 9.2 1.25% −15.2
Interpersonal violence 5.2 0.70% −11.1
Assault by firearm 2.2 0.30% −3.6
Assault by sharp object 1.2 0.16% −22.3
Assault by other means 1.8 0.24% −11.5
Conflict and terrorism 1.7 0.23% 98.4
Executions and police conflict 0.2 0.03% 172.4

By lost years

[edit]
This section is an excerpt from Years of potential life lost § By main cause of death in the United States of America.[edit]
Person-years of potential life lost in the United States in 2006[8]
Cause of premature death Person-years lost
Cancer 8.6 million
Heart disease and strokes 8.8 million
Accidents and other injuries 5.9 million
All other causes 13.6 million
Person-years of potential life lost in the United States in 2018
Cause of premature death Person-years lost
(Use/Accessibility/... of) firearms 1.42 million[9][10]
Motor vehicle crashes 1.34 million[10]
All other causes
A study suggests the global "mean loss of life expectancy" (LLE) from all forms of direct violence was about 0.3 years, while air pollution accounted for about 2.9 years in 2015.[11]

Underlying causes

[edit]

Causes of death can be structured into immediate causes of death or primary causes of death, conditions leading to cause of death, underlying causes, and further relevant conditions that may have contributed to fatal outcome.[12]

According to the WHO, underlying causes are "the disease[s] or injury[ies] which initiated the train[s] of morbid events leading directly to death, or the circumstances of the accident or violence which produced the fatal injury".[13]

Malnutrition

[edit]

Malnutrition can be identified as an underlying cause for shortened life.[14] 70% of childhood deaths (age 0–4) are reportedly due to diarrheal illness, acute respiratory infection, malaria and immunizable disease. However 56% of these childhood deaths can be attributed to the effects of malnutrition as an underlying cause.[15] The effects of malnutrition include increased susceptibility to infection,[16] musculature wasting, skeletal deformities and neurologic development delays.[17] According to the World Health Organization, malnutrition is named as the biggest contributor to child mortality[18] with 36 million deaths in 2005 related to malnutrition.[19]

Obesity and unhealthy diets

[edit]

Beyond undernutrition and micronutrient deficiencies, malnutrition also includes obesity,[20] which predisposes towards several chronic diseases, including 13 different types of cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and type 2 diabetes.[21][22][23][24][25][26][27] According to the WHO, being "chronically overweight and obesity are among the leading causes of death and disability in Europe", with estimates suggesting they cause more than 1.2 million deaths annually, corresponding to over 13% of total mortality in the region.[27] Various types of health policy could counter the trend and reduce obesity.[28]

Diets, not just in terms of obesity but also of food composition, can have a major impact on underlying factors (see also #Aging below), with reviews suggesting i.a. that a 20-years old male in Europe who switches to the "optimal diet" could gain a mean of ~13.7 years of life and a 60-years old female in the U.S. switching to the "optimal diet" could gain a mean of ~8.0 years of life. It found the largest gains would be made by eating more legumes, whole grains, and nuts, and less red meat and processed meat. It also contains no consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages (moving from "typical Western diet" of 500 g/day to 0 g/day).[29][30]

Pollution

[edit]

A review concluded that, like in 2015, pollution (¾ from air pollution) was responsible for 9 million premature deaths in 2019 (one in six deaths). It concluded that little real progress against pollution can be identified.[31][32]

Air pollution

[edit]

Overall, air pollution causes the deaths of around ca. 7 million people worldwide each year, and is the world's largest single environmental health risk, according to the WHO (2012) and the IEA (2016).[33][34][35]

The IEA notes that many of root causes and cures can be found in the energy industry and suggests solutions such as retiring polluting coal-fired power plants and to establishing stricter standards for motor vehicles.[35] In September 2020 the European Environment Agency reported that environmental factors such as air pollution and heatwaves contributed to around 13% of all human deaths in EU countries in 2012 (~630,000).[36] A 2021 study using a high spatial resolution model and an updated concentration-response function finds that 10.2 million global excess deaths in 2012 and 8.7 million in 2018 – or a fifth[dubious – discuss] – were due to air pollution generated by fossil fuel combustion, significantly higher than earlier estimates and with spatially subdivided mortality impacts.[37][38]

A 2020 study indicates that the global mean loss of life expectancy (LLE) from air pollution in 2015 was 2.9 years, substantially more than, for example, 0.3 years from all forms of direct violence, albeit a significant fraction of the LLE is considered to be unavoidable.[39]

Uses of nervous system drugs

[edit]

According to the WHO, worldwide, about 0.5 million deaths are attributable to uses of drugs, with more than 70% of these being related to opioids, with overdose being the direct cause of more than 30% of those deaths.[40]

Various uses of various opioids accounts for many deaths worldwide, termed opioid epidemic. Nearly 75% of the 91,799 drug overdose deaths in 2020 in the United States involved an opioid.[41]

Not all nervous system drugs are associated with risks for contributing to deaths as an underlying factor or for uses that are. In some cases, potentially harmful or harmful drugs can be substituted or weaned off with the help of pharmacological alternatives – such as potentially NAC and modafinil in the case of cocaine dependence[42] – whose uses are not considered to be underlying causes of deaths. In some cases, they – including caffeine – can help improve general health such as, directly and indirectly, physical fitness and mental health either in general or in specific ranges of informed administrations.

Smoking

[edit]

Smoking is the leading cause of preventable death in the United States. It is an underlying cause of many cancers, cardiovascular diseases, stroke, and respiratory diseases.[43]

Smoking usually refers to smoking of tobacco products. E-cigarettes also pose large risks to health.[44] The health impacts of tobacco-alternative products such as various herbs and the use of charcoal filters[45][46] are often investigated less, with existing research suggesting only limited benefits over tobacco smoking. Some smokers may benefit from switching to a vaporizer as a harm reduction measure if they do not quit, which however also only has little robust evidence.[47][48][49] Frequency of use is a major factor in the level of risks[44] or permanence and extent of health impacts.

A review found smoking and second-hand smoke to be a global underlying cause of death as large as pollution, which in that analysis was the largest major underlying factor.[31]

Alcohol

[edit]

Globally, alcohol use was the seventh leading risk factor for both deaths and DALY in 2016. A review found that the "risk of all-cause mortality, and of cancers specifically, rises with increasing levels of consumption, and the level of consumption that minimises health loss is zero".[50]

Non-optimal ambient temperatures

[edit]

A study found that 9.4% of global deaths between 2000 and 2019 – ~5 million annually – can be attributed to extreme temperature with cold-related ones making up the larger share and decreasing and heat-related ones making up ~0.91% and increasing. Incidences of heart attacks, cardiac arrests and strokes increase under such conditions.[51][52]

Antimicrobial resistance

[edit]

In a global assessment, scientists reported, based on medical records, that antibiotic resistance may have contributed to ~4.95 million (3.62–6.57) deaths in 2019, with 1.3 million directly attributed – the latter being more than deaths than from e.g. AIDS or Malaria,[53][54] despite being project to rise substantially.[55]

Comorbidities, general health, social factors and infectious diseases

[edit]

Co-existing diseases can but don't necessarily contribute to death[56] to various degrees in various ways.

In some cases, comorbidities can be major causes with complex underlying mechanisms, and a range of comorbidities can be present once.[57]

Pandemics[58][59] and infectious diseases or epidemics can be major underlying causes of deaths. In a small study of 26 decedents,[better source needed] the pandemized COVID-19 and infection-related disease were "major contributors" to patients' death.[12] Such deaths are sometimes evaluated via excess deaths per capita – the COVID-19 pandemic deaths between January 1, 2020, and December 31, 2021, are estimated to be ~18.2 million. Research could help distinguish the proportions directly caused by COVID-19 from those caused by indirect consequences of the pandemic.[60][61]

Mental health issues and related issues such as economic conditions[62] and/or various uses of nervous system drugs can contribute to causes such as suicide[63][64] or risky behavior related deaths.

Loneliness or insufficient social relationships is also a major underlying factor, which may be comparable to smoking and, according to one meta-analysis of 148 studies, "exceeds many well-known risk factors for mortality (e.g., obesity, physical inactivity)".[65] Injuries and violence are "the leading causes of death among children, adolescents, and young adults in the US" with underlying risk factors for such including "detrimental community, family, or individual circumstances" that increase the likelihood of violence. Types of preventive measures may include support of "healthy development of individuals, families, schools, and communities, and build[ing] capacity for positive relationships and interactions".[66]

Lifestyle factors[67] – including physical inactivity,[68] and tobacco smoking and excessive alcohol use (see above),[69] healthy eating (see above)[70] – and/or general health – including fitness beyond healthy diet and non-obesity – can be underlying contributors to death. For example, in a sample of U.S. adults, ~9.9% deaths of adults aged 40 to 69 years and ~7.8% adults aged 70 years or older were attributed to inadequate levels of physical activity.[71]

Aging

[edit]
See also: Life extension § Societal strategies, and Aging-associated diseases

Traditionally aging is not considered as a cause of death. It is believed that there is always a more direct cause, and usually it is one of many age-related diseases. It is estimated that, as a root cause, the aging process underlies 2/3 of all death in the world (approximately 100,000 people per day in 2007). In highly developed countries this proportion can reach 90%.[72] There are requests of granting aging an official status of a disease and treating it directly (such as via dietary changes (see above) and senolytics).[73][74][75][76][77]

This section is an excerpt from Aging-associated diseases.[edit]
Age-specific SEER incidence rates, 2003–2007

Examples of aging-associated diseases are atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease, cancer, arthritis, cataracts, osteoporosis, type 2 diabetes, hypertension and Alzheimer's disease. The incidence of all of these diseases increases exponentially with age.[78]

Of the roughly 150,000 people who die each day across the globe, about two thirds—100,000 per day—die of age-related causes.[79] In industrialized nations, the proportion is higher, reaching 90%.[79]

Economics and policies

[edit]

Economics and policies may be factors underlying deaths at a more fundamental level. For example, economics may result in certain therapies or screenings being expensive rather than produced at an affordable price or medication costs being too high for an individual to afford them even if they are made available at low cost, poverty can affect nutrition, marketing can increase the consumption of unhealthy products, incentives and regulations for health and healthy environments may be weak or missing, and occupational safety and humans' environment can suffer due to economic pressures for low production costs and high consumption. Health policy and health systems can have impacts on deaths and thereby may also be a factor of deaths, also including for example education policy (e.g. health illiteracy), climate policy (e.g. future water scarcity impacts) and transportation policy (e.g. motor vehicle accidents, pollution and physical activity),[citation needed] as well as in/action on policy-influenceable physical inactivity.[80] 'Recent financial difficulties' appears to be a factor of mortality.[81] One study estimated how many people die from poverty in the U.S.[82] Low socioeconomic status, as determined by economics, appears to reduce life expectancy.[83] The current systemic incentive for maximized profits may inhibit global occupational health and safety.[84] The negative externality of environmental damages can have substantial impacts on global healthcare.[85][additional citation(s) needed]

Underlying factors by cause

[edit]
Global deaths from cancers attributable to risk factors in 2019 by sex and Socio-demographic Index[86]
Cancer DALYs attributable to 11 Level 2 risk factors globally in 2019[86]

Underlying factors can also be analyzed per cause of (or major contributor to) death and can be distinguished between "preventable" factors and other factors. For example, various Global Burden of Disease Studies investigate such factors and quantify recent developments – one such systematic analysis analyzed the (non)progress on cancer and its causes during the 2010–19-decade, indicating that 2019, ~44% of all cancer deaths – or ~4.5 M deaths or ~105 million lost disability-adjusted life years – were due to known clearly preventable risk factors, led by smoking, alcohol use and high BMI.[86]

Determination and tracking of underlying factors

[edit]

Electronic health records,[87][88][54] death certificates[89][56][90][91] as well as post-mortem analyses (such as post-mortem computed tomography and other other pathology)[92] can and are often used to investigate underlying causes of deaths such as for mortality statistics,[93][94] relevant to progress measurements.[95] Improvements to this reporting, where e.g. certain diseases are often under-reported or underlying cause-of-death (COD) statement are incorrect,[96][97][98] could ultimately improve public health.[99][100] One reason for this is that from "a public health point of view, preventing this first disease or injury will result in the greatest health gain".[95]

United States

[edit]

By age group (U.S.)

[edit]
Leading causes of death by age group in USA, 2018[101]
Leading causes of death in the United States by age group[102]
Leading causes of death in the United States, as percentage of deaths in each age group.[102] Perinatal mortality (<1yrs of age) seldom falls in any of these causes.
Death by age group as rate compared to the age group with highest rate[102]

By occupation (U.S.)

[edit]

With an average of 123.6 deaths per 100,000 from 2003 through 2010 the most dangerous occupation in the United States is the cell tower construction industry.[103]

Selected occupations with high fatality rates, 2011, in the United States[104]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ WHO (2005). "Cancer". Archived from the original on May 18, 2020.
  2. ^ Lozano R, Naghavi M, Foreman K, Lim S, Shibuya K, Aboyans V, et al. (December 2012). "Global and regional mortality from 235 causes of death for 20 age groups in 1990 and 2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010" (PDF). Lancet. 380 (9859): 2095–2128. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61728-0. hdl:10536/DRO/DU:30050819. PMC 10790329. PMID 23245604. S2CID 1541253. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 11, 2020.
  3. ^ "The top 10 causes of death". www.who.int.
  4. ^ "The top 10 causes of death". www.who.int. Retrieved August 12, 2024.
  5. ^ GBD 2017 Causes of Death Collaborators. "Global, regional, and national age-sex-specific mortality for 282 causes of death in 195 countries and territories, 1980–2017: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017". The Lancet. November 8, 2018; 392:1736–88. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(18)32203-7. Table 1.
  6. ^ Ikuta KS, Swetschinski LR, Robles Aguilar G, Sharara F, Mestrovic T, Gray AP, et al. (December 2022). "Global mortality associated with 33 bacterial pathogens in 2019: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019". Lancet. 400 (10369): 2221–2248. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(22)02185-7. PMC 9763654. PMID 36423648.
  7. ^ "Cause of Death". UC Atlas of Global Inequality. University of California, Santa Cruz. February 18, 2004. Archived from the original on June 18, 2014. Retrieved June 9, 2014.
  8. ^ National Cancer Institute. "Person-Years of Life Lost". Cancer Trends Progress Report, 2009/2010 Update. Archived from the original on July 1, 2011.
  9. ^ "Premature deaths from guns expose another toll of the firearms crisis". Georgia Public Broadcasting. Retrieved March 16, 2022.
  10. ^ a b Klein, Joshua; Prabhakaran, Kartik; Latifi, Rifat; Rhee, Peter (February 1, 2022). "Firearms: the leading cause of years of potential life lost". Trauma Surgery & Acute Care Open. 7 (1): e000766. doi:10.1136/tsaco-2021-000766. ISSN 2397-5776. PMC 8819782. PMID 35141422.
  11. ^ Lelieveld, Jos; Pozzer, Andrea; Pöschl, Ulrich; Fnais, Mohammed; Haines, Andy; Münzel, Thomas (September 1, 2020). "Loss of life expectancy from air pollution compared to other risk factors: a worldwide perspective". Cardiovascular Research. 116 (11): 1910–1917. doi:10.1093/cvr/cvaa025. ISSN 0008-6363. PMC 7449554. PMID 32123898.
  12. ^ a b Elezkurtaj S, Greuel S, Ihlow J, Michaelis EG, Bischoff P, Kunze CA, et al. (February 2021). "Causes of death and comorbidities in hospitalized patients with COVID-19". Scientific Reports. 11 (1): 4263. Bibcode:2021NatSR..11.4263E. doi:10.1038/s41598-021-82862-5. PMC 7895917. PMID 33608563.
  13. ^ "Cause of death". www.who.int. Retrieved July 7, 2022.
  14. ^ "Mortality In Second And Third Degree Malnutrition". Tropej.oxfordjournals.org. June 3, 2014. Archived from the original on January 31, 2016. Retrieved June 9, 2014.
  15. ^ Pelletier DL, Frongillo EA, Schroeder DG, Habicht JP (January 24, 2014). "The effects of malnutrition on child mortality in developing countries". Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 73 (4): 443–448. PMC 2486780. PMID 7554015.
  16. ^ Faulk WP, Demaeyer EM, Davies AJ (June 1974). "Some effects of malnutrition on the immune response in man". The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 27 (6). Ajcn.nutrition.org: 638–646. doi:10.1093/ajcn/27.6.638. PMID 4208451.
  17. ^ Grover Z, Ee LC (October 2009). "Protein energy malnutrition". Pediatric Clinics of North America. 56 (5). Pediatric.theclinics.com: 1055–1068. doi:10.1016/j.pcl.2009.07.001. PMID 19931063.
  18. ^ Stay informed today; every day (January 24, 2008). "Malnutrition: The starvelings". The Economist. Retrieved June 9, 2014.
  19. ^ Ziegler J (2007). L'Empire de la honte (in French). Paris: Librairie générale française. ISBN 978-2-253-12115-2. OCLC 470722796.
  20. ^ "Fact sheets - Malnutrition". www.who.int. Retrieved July 7, 2022.
  21. ^ Goossens GH (2017). "The Metabolic Phenotype in Obesity: Fat Mass, Body Fat Distribution, and Adipose Tissue Function". Obesity Facts. 10 (3): 207–215. doi:10.1159/000471488. PMC 5644968. PMID 28564650. S2CID 4306910.
  22. ^ Avgerinos KI, Spyrou N, Mantzoros CS, Dalamaga M (March 2019). "Obesity and cancer risk: Emerging biological mechanisms and perspectives". Metabolism. 92: 121–135. doi:10.1016/j.metabol.2018.11.001. PMID 30445141. S2CID 53568407.
  23. ^ Friedenreich CM, Ryder-Burbidge C, McNeil J (March 2021). "Physical activity, obesity and sedentary behavior in cancer etiology: epidemiologic evidence and biologic mechanisms". Molecular Oncology. 15 (3): 790–800. doi:10.1002/1878-0261.12772. PMC 7931121. PMID 32741068.
  24. ^ Kim DS, Scherer PE (November 2021). "Obesity, Diabetes, and Increased Cancer Progression". Diabetes & Metabolism Journal. 45 (6): 799–812. doi:10.4093/dmj.2021.0077. PMC 8640143. PMID 34847640.
  25. ^ Jayedi A, Soltani S, Zargar MS, Khan TA, Shab-Bidar S (September 2020). "Central fatness and risk of all cause mortality: systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of 72 prospective cohort studies". BMJ. 370: m3324. doi:10.1136/bmj.m3324. PMC 7509947. PMID 32967840.
  26. ^ Powell-Wiley TM, Poirier P, Burke LE, Després JP, Gordon-Larsen P, Lavie CJ, et al. (May 2021). "Obesity and Cardiovascular Disease: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association". Circulation. 143 (21): e984–e1010. doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000000973. PMC 8493650. PMID 33882682. S2CID 233349410.
  27. ^ a b "WHO warns of worsening obesity 'epidemic' in Europe". UN News. May 3, 2022. Retrieved July 6, 2022.
  28. ^ Agha M, Agha R (August 2017). "The rising prevalence of obesity: part B-public health policy solutions". International Journal of Surgery. Oncology. 2 (7): e19. doi:10.1097/ij9.0000000000000019. PMC 5673155. PMID 29177229.
  29. ^ Fadnes LT, Økland JM, Haaland ØA, Johansson KA (February 2022). "Estimating impact of food choices on life expectancy: A modeling study". PLOS Medicine. 19 (2): e1003889. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1003889. PMC 8824353. PMID 35134067. S2CID 246676734. Lay summary: "Changing your diet could add up to a decade to life expectancy, study finds". Public Library of Science. Retrieved March 16, 2022.
  30. ^ Longo VD, Anderson RM (April 2022). "Nutrition, longevity and disease: From molecular mechanisms to interventions". Cell. 185 (9): 1455–1470. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2022.04.002. PMC 9089818. PMID 35487190.
  31. ^ a b Dickie G (May 18, 2022). "Pollution killing 9 million people a year, Africa hardest hit – study". Reuters. Retrieved June 23, 2022.
  32. ^ Fuller R, Landrigan PJ, Balakrishnan K, Bathan G, Bose-O'Reilly S, Brauer M, et al. (June 2022). "Pollution and health: a progress update". The Lancet. Planetary Health. 6 (6): e535–e547. doi:10.1016/S2542-5196(22)00090-0. PMID 35863895. S2CID 248905224.
  33. ^ "7 million premature deaths annually linked to air pollution". WHO. March 25, 2014. Archived from the original on March 26, 2014. Retrieved March 25, 2014.
  34. ^ "Energy and Air Pollution" (PDF). Iea.org. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 11, 2019. Retrieved March 12, 2019.
  35. ^ a b "Study Links 6.5 Million Deaths Each Year to Air Pollution". The New York Times. June 26, 2016. Retrieved June 27, 2016.
  36. ^ Abnett K (September 8, 2020). "One in eight deaths in Europe linked to pollution, environment, EU says". Reuters. Retrieved October 9, 2020.
  37. ^ Green M (February 9, 2021). "Fossil fuel pollution causes one in five premature deaths globally: study". Reuters. Retrieved March 5, 2021.
  38. ^ Vohra K, Vodonos A, Schwartz J, Marais EA, Sulprizio MP, Mickley LJ (April 2021). "Global mortality from outdoor fine particle pollution generated by fossil fuel combustion: Results from GEOS-Chem". Environmental Research. 195: 110754. Bibcode:2021EnvRe.19510754V. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2021.110754. PMID 33577774. S2CID 231909881.
  39. ^ Lelieveld J, Pozzer A, Pöschl U, Fnais M, Haines A, Münzel T (September 2020). "Loss of life expectancy from air pollution compared to other risk factors: a worldwide perspective". Cardiovascular Research. 116 (11): 1910–1917. doi:10.1093/cvr/cvaa025. PMC 7449554. PMID 32123898.
  40. ^ "Opioid overdose". www.who.int. Retrieved July 10, 2022.
  41. ^ "Understanding the Opioid Overdose Epidemic | CDC's Response to the Opioid Overdose Epidemic | CDC". www.cdc.gov. June 1, 2022. Retrieved July 10, 2022.
  42. ^ Karila L, Reynaud M, Aubin HJ, Rolland B, Guardia D, Cottencin O, Benyamina A (May 1, 2011). "Pharmacological treatments for cocaine dependence: is there something new?". Current Pharmaceutical Design. 17 (14): 1359–1368. doi:10.2174/138161211796150873. PMID 21524259.
  43. ^ Lariscy JT (April 2019). "Smoking-attributable mortality by cause of death in the United States: An indirect approach". SSM – Population Health. 7: 100349. doi:10.1016/j.ssmph.2019.100349. PMC 6351587. PMID 30723766.
  44. ^ a b "Tobacco: E-cigarettes". www.who.int. Retrieved July 10, 2022.
  45. ^ Coggins CR, Gaworski CL (April 2008). "Could charcoal filtration of cigarette smoke reduce smoking-induced disease? A review of the literature". Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology. 50 (3): 359–365. doi:10.1016/j.yrtph.2008.01.001. PMID 18289753.
  46. ^ Scherer G, Urban M, Engl J, Hagedorn HW, Riedel K (September 2006). "Influence of smoking charcoal filter tipped cigarettes on various biomarkers of exposure". Inhalation Toxicology. 18 (10): 821–829. Bibcode:2006InhTx..18..821S. doi:10.1080/08958370600747945. PMID 16774872. S2CID 46337946.
  47. ^ Gartner CE (November 2015). "Mull it over: cannabis vaporizers and harm reduction". Addiction. 110 (11): 1709–1710. doi:10.1111/add.13139. PMID 26471154.
  48. ^ Russell C, Rueda S, Room R, Tyndall M, Fischer B (February 2018). "Routes of administration for cannabis use - basic prevalence and related health outcomes: A scoping review and synthesis". The International Journal on Drug Policy. 52: 87–96. doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2017.11.008. PMID 29277082.
  49. ^ Solowij N (November 2018). "Peering Through the Haze of Smoked vs Vaporized Cannabis-To Vape or Not to Vape?". JAMA Network Open. 1 (7): e184838. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2018.4838. PMID 30646385. S2CID 58539866.
  50. ^ Griswold MG, Fullman N, Hawley C, Arian N, Zimsen SR, Tymeson HD, et al. (September 2018). "Alcohol use and burden for 195 countries and territories, 1990–2016: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016". Lancet. 392 (10152): 1015–1035. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31310-2. PMC 6148333. PMID 30146330.
  51. ^ "Extreme temperatures kill 5 million people a year with heat-related deaths rising, study finds". The Guardian. July 7, 2021. Retrieved August 14, 2021.
  52. ^ Zhao Q, Guo Y, Ye T, Gasparrini A, Tong S, Overcenco A, et al. (July 2021). "Global, regional, and national burden of mortality associated with non-optimal ambient temperatures from 2000 to 2019: a three-stage modelling study". The Lancet. Planetary Health. 5 (7): e415–e425. doi:10.1016/S2542-5196(21)00081-4. hdl:2158/1285803. PMID 34245712. S2CID 235791583.
  53. ^ "Antibiotic resistance killed more people than malaria or AIDS in 2019". New Scientist. Retrieved February 12, 2022.
  54. ^ a b Murray CJ, et al. (Antimicrobial Resistance Collaborators) (February 2022). "Global burden of bacterial antimicrobial resistance in 2019: a systematic analysis". Lancet. 399 (10325): 629–655. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(21)02724-0. PMC 8841637. PMID 35065702.
  55. ^ Chanel S, Doherty B (September 10, 2020). "'Superbugs' a far greater risk than Covid in Pacific, scientist warns". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved September 14, 2020.
  56. ^ a b Kotabagi RB, Chaturvedi RK, Banerjee A (July 2004). "Medical Certification of Cause of Death". Medical Journal, Armed Forces India. 60 (3): 261–272. doi:10.1016/S0377-1237(04)80060-1. PMC 4923180. PMID 27407646.
  57. ^ Sin DD, Anthonisen NR, Soriano JB, Agusti AG (December 2006). "Mortality in COPD: Role of comorbidities". The European Respiratory Journal. 28 (6): 1245–1257. doi:10.1183/09031936.00133805. PMID 17138679. S2CID 15374114.
  58. ^ Wu J, Mafham M, Mamas MA, Rashid M, Kontopantelis E, Deanfield JE, et al. (April 2021). "Place and Underlying Cause of Death During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Retrospective Cohort Study of 3.5 Million Deaths in England and Wales, 2014 to 2020". Mayo Clinic Proceedings. 96 (4): 952–963. doi:10.1016/j.mayocp.2021.02.007. PMC 7885692. PMID 33714592.
  59. ^ Wadhera RK, Shen C, Gondi S, Chen S, Kazi DS, Yeh RW (January 2021). "Cardiovascular Deaths During the COVID-19 Pandemic in the United States". Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 77 (2): 159–169. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2020.10.055. PMC 7800141. PMID 33446309.
  60. ^ Adam D (March 2022). "COVID's true death toll: much higher than official records". Nature. 603 (7902): 562. Bibcode:2022Natur.603..562A. doi:10.1038/d41586-022-00708-0. PMID 35277684. S2CID 247407282.
  61. ^ Wang H, Paulson KR, Pease SA, Watson S, Comfort H, Zheng P, et al. (April 2022). "Estimating excess mortality due to the COVID-19 pandemic: a systematic analysis of COVID-19-related mortality, 2020-21". Lancet. 399 (10334): 1513–1536. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(21)02796-3. PMC 8912932. PMID 35279232.
  62. ^ Ueda M, Nordström R, Matsubayashi T (August 2022). "Suicide and mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic in Japan". Journal of Public Health. 44 (3): 541–548. doi:10.1093/pubmed/fdab113. PMC 8083330. PMID 33855451.
  63. ^ Rockett IR, Wang S, Lian Y, Stack S (October 2007). "Suicide-associated comorbidity among US males and females: a multiple cause-of-death analysis". Injury Prevention. 13 (5): 311–315. doi:10.1136/ip.2007.015230. PMC 2610621. PMID 17916887.
  64. ^ Kutcher SP, Szumilas M (January 2008). "Youth suicide prevention". CMAJ. 178 (3): 282–285. doi:10.1503/cmaj.071315. PMC 2211358. PMID 18227445.
  65. ^ Holt-Lunstad J, Smith TB, Layton JB (July 2010). "Social relationships and mortality risk: a meta-analytic review". PLOS Medicine. 7 (7): e1000316. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1000316. PMC 2910600. PMID 20668659.
  66. ^ Cohen L, Davis R, Realini A (September 2016). "Communities are not all created equal: Strategies to prevent violence affecting youth in the United States". Journal of Public Health Policy. 37 (Suppl 1): 81–94. doi:10.1057/s41271-016-0005-4. PMID 27638244. S2CID 205132439.
  67. ^ "Lifestyle Risk Factors | Tracking | NCEH | CDC". www.cdc.gov. August 31, 2021. Retrieved July 8, 2022.
  68. ^ Carlson SA, Adams EK, Yang Z, Fulton JE (March 2018). "Percentage of Deaths Associated With Inadequate Physical Activity in the United States". Preventing Chronic Disease. 15: E38. doi:10.5888/pcd18.170354. PMC 5894301. PMID 29602315.
  69. ^ Danaei G, Ding EL, Mozaffarian D, Taylor B, Rehm J, Murray CJ, Ezzati M (April 2009). "The preventable causes of death in the United States: comparative risk assessment of dietary, lifestyle, and metabolic risk factors". PLOS Medicine. 6 (4): e1000058. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1000058. PMC 2667673. PMID 19399161. S2CID 15272724.
  70. ^ Ford ES, Bergmann MM, Boeing H, Li C, Capewell S (July 2012). "Healthy lifestyle behaviors and all-cause mortality among adults in the United States". Preventive Medicine. 55 (1): 23–27. doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2012.04.016. PMC 4688898. PMID 22564893.
  71. ^ Carlson SA, Adams EK, Yang Z, Fulton JE (March 2018). "Percentage of Deaths Associated With Inadequate Physical Activity in the United States". Preventing Chronic Disease. 15: E38. doi:10.5888/pcd18.170354. PMC 5894301. PMID 29602315. S2CID 4509842.
  72. ^ de Grey AN (2007). "Life Span Extension Research and Public Debate: Societal Considerations" (PDF). Studies in Ethics, Law, and Technology. 1 (1, Article 5). CiteSeerX 10.1.1.395.745. doi:10.2202/1941-6008.1011. S2CID 201101995. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 13, 2016. Retrieved August 7, 2011.
  73. ^ Zhavoronkov A, Bhullar B (October 4, 2015). "Classifying aging as a disease in the context of ICD-11". Frontiers in Genetics. 6: 326. doi:10.3389/fgene.2015.00326. PMC 4631811. PMID 26583032.
  74. ^ Stambler I (October 2017). "Recognizing Degenerative Aging as a Treatable Medical Condition: Methodology and Policy". Aging and Disease. 8 (5): 583–589. doi:10.14336/AD.2017.0130. PMC 5614323. PMID 28966803.
  75. ^ The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology (August 2018). "Opening the door to treating ageing as a disease". The Lancet. Diabetes & Endocrinology. 6 (8): 587. doi:10.1016/S2213-8587(18)30214-6. PMID 30053981. S2CID 51726070.
  76. ^ Calimport SR, Bentley BL, Stewart CE, Pawelec G, Scuteri A, Vinciguerra M, et al. (November 2019). "To help aging populations, classify organismal senescence". Science. 366 (6465): 576–578. Bibcode:2019Sci...366..576C. doi:10.1126/science.aay7319. PMC 7193988. PMID 31672885.
  77. ^ Khaltourina D, Matveyev Y, Alekseev A, Cortese F, Ioviţă A (July 2020). "Aging Fits the Disease Criteria of the International Classification of Diseases". Mechanisms of Ageing and Development. 189: 111230. doi:10.1016/j.mad.2020.111230. PMID 32251691. S2CID 214779653.
  78. ^ Belikov AV (January 2019). "Age-related diseases as vicious cycles". Ageing Research Reviews. 49: 11–26. doi:10.1016/j.arr.2018.11.002. PMID 30458244. S2CID 53567141.
  79. ^ a b de Grey A (2007). "Life Span Extension Research and Public Debate: Societal Considerations" (PDF). Studies in Ethics, Law, and Technology. 1 (1, Article 5). CiteSeerX 10.1.1.395.745. doi:10.2202/1941-6008.1011. S2CID 201101995. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 13, 2016. Retrieved August 7, 2011.
  80. ^ Santos AC, Willumsen J, Meheus F, Ilbawi A, Bull FC (January 2023). "The cost of inaction on physical inactivity to public health-care systems: a population-attributable fraction analysis". The Lancet. Global Health. 11 (1): e32–e39. doi:10.1016/S2214-109X(22)00464-8. PMC 9748301. PMID 36480931.
  81. ^ Puterman E, Weiss J, Hives BA, Gemmill A, Karasek D, Mendes WB, Rehkopf DH (July 2020). "Predicting mortality from 57 economic, behavioral, social, and psychological factors". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 117 (28): 16273–16282. Bibcode:2020PNAS..11716273P. doi:10.1073/pnas.1918455117. PMC 7369318. PMID 32571904.
  82. ^ Bakalar N (July 4, 2011). "Researchers Link Deaths to Social Ills". The New York Times. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
  83. ^ Stringhini S, Carmeli C, Jokela M, Avendaño M, Muennig P, Guida F, et al. (March 2017). "Socioeconomic status and the 25 × 25 risk factors as determinants of premature mortality: a multicohort study and meta-analysis of 1·7 million men and women". Lancet. 389 (10075): 1229–1237. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(16)32380-7. PMC 5368415. PMID 28159391.
  84. ^ Lucchini RG, London L (November 25, 2014). "Global occupational health: current challenges and the need for urgent action". Annals of Global Health. 80 (4): 251–256. doi:10.1016/j.aogh.2014.09.006. hdl:11379/463539. PMID 25459325.
  85. ^ Batool R, Zaman K, Khurshid MA, Sheikh SM, Aamir A, Shoukry AM, et al. (October 2019). "Economics of death and dying: a critical evaluation of environmental damages and healthcare reforms across the globe". Environmental Science and Pollution Research International. 26 (29): 29799–29809. Bibcode:2019ESPR...2629799B. doi:10.1007/s11356-019-06159-x. PMID 31407261. S2CID 199528114.
  86. ^ a b c Tran KB, Lang JJ, Compton K, Xu R, Acheson AR, Henrikson HJ, et al. (August 2022). "The global burden of cancer attributable to risk factors, 2010-19: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019". Lancet. 400 (10352): 563–591. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(22)01438-6. PMC 9395583. PMID 35988567.
  87. ^ Leventer-Roberts M, Haklai Z, Applbaum Y, Goldberger N, Cohen D, Levinkron O, et al. (June 2021). "Validating reported cause of death using integrated electronic health records from a nation-wide database". Journal of Public Health. 43 (2): 341–347. doi:10.1093/pubmed/fdz146. PMID 31774532.
  88. ^ Goldstein SA, D'Ottavio A, Spears T, Chiswell K, Hartman RJ, Krasuski RA, et al. (July 2020). "Causes of Death and Cardiovascular Comorbidities in Adults With Congenital Heart Disease". Journal of the American Heart Association. 9 (14): e016400. doi:10.1161/JAHA.119.016400. PMC 7660712. PMID 32654582.
  89. ^ Brooks EG, Reed KD (June 2015). "Principles and Pitfalls: a Guide to Death Certification". Clinical Medicine & Research. 13 (2): 74–82. doi:10.3121/cmr.2015.1276. PMC 4504663. PMID 26185270.
  90. ^ "Underlying Cause of Death, 1999-2020 Request". wonder.cdc.gov. Retrieved July 7, 2022.
  91. ^ "Underlying and Multiple Cause of Death Codes" (PDF). Retrieved July 7, 2022.
  92. ^ Vester ME, van Rijn RR, Duijst WL, Beenen LF, Clerkx M, Oostra RJ (July 2020). "Added value of post-mortem computed tomography (PMCT) to clinical findings for cause of death determination in adult "natural deaths"". International Journal of Legal Medicine. 134 (4): 1457–1463. doi:10.1007/s00414-019-02219-6. PMC 7295833. PMID 31853676.
  93. ^ "ICD - ICD-10 - International Classification of Diseases, Tenth Revision". www.cdc.gov. December 29, 2021. Retrieved July 7, 2022.
  94. ^ Brody JE (February 14, 2022). "When the Death Certificate Omits the True Cause of Death". The New York Times. Retrieved July 7, 2022.
  95. ^ a b "Guidance for doctors completing medical certificates of cause of death in England and Wales (accessible version)". GOV.UK. Retrieved July 7, 2022.
  96. ^ "Death certificates may not adequately report dementia as cause of death". National Institute on Aging. October 15, 2020. Retrieved July 7, 2022.
  97. ^ McGivern L, Shulman L, Carney JK, Shapiro S, Bundock E (November 2017). "Death Certification Errors and the Effect on Mortality Statistics". Public Health Reports. 132 (6): 669–675. doi:10.1177/0033354917736514. PMC 5692167. PMID 29091542. S2CID 8126036.
  98. ^ Alipour J, Payandeh A (August 2021). "Common errors in reporting cause-of-death statement on death certificates: A systematic review and meta-analysis". Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine. 82: 102220. doi:10.1016/j.jflm.2021.102220. PMID 34325081. S2CID 236516668.
  99. ^ "Reporting Cause of Death: Quick Reference". Retrieved July 7, 2022.
  100. ^ Meikle J (December 2, 2012). "Certified causes of death inaccurate in fifth of cases, study suggests". The Guardian. Retrieved July 8, 2022.
  101. ^ "Leading causes of death by age group: 2018, Both sexes, All ages, All races" (PDF). National Center for Injury Prevention and Control. 2018.
  102. ^ a b c Miniño AM, Arias E, Kochanek KD, Murphy SL, Smith BL (September 2002). "Deaths: final data for 2000" (PDF). National Vital Statistics Reports. 50 (15): 1–119. PMID 12382630.
  103. ^ Knutson R, Day L (May 21, 2012). "Methodology: How We Calculated the Tower Industry Death Rate".
  104. ^ "National Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries in 2006" (PDF). Bureau of Labor Statistics. Retrieved June 9, 2014.
[edit]
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_causes_of_death_by_rate&oldid=1257124437"