百姓

Chinese

	hundred	surname; family name; name
trad. (百姓)	百	姓
simp. ^#(百姓)	百	姓
Literally: “hundred surnames”.

Etymology

Earliest attested in the Zhou dynasty's texts (also written as 百生 (bǎixìng ~ bǎishēng) on some bronze inscriptions);^[1] further linked to the expression 多生 (duōshēng) on the oracle bone inscriptions.^[2]

Pronunciation

Mandarin
(Standard)
(Pinyin): bǎixìng, bóxìng

(Zhuyin): ㄅㄞˇ ㄒㄧㄥˋ, ㄅㄛˊ ㄒㄧㄥˋ

(Dungan, Cyrillic and Wiktionary): быйщин (bɨyxin, I-I)
Cantonese (Jyutping): baak³ sing³
Gan (Wiktionary): 'bet⁶ xin⁴
Hakka (Sixian, PFS): pak-siang
Southern Min
(Hokkien, POJ): peh-sèⁿ / peh-sìⁿ / peeh-sèⁿ

(Teochew, Peng'im): bêh⁴ sên²
Wu (Shanghai, Wugniu): ⁷paq-shin

Mandarin
- (Standard Chinese)
  - Hanyu Pinyin: bǎixìng
  - Zhuyin: ㄅㄞˇ ㄒㄧㄥˋ
  - Tongyong Pinyin: bǎisìng
  - Wade–Giles: pai³-hsing⁴
  - Yale: bǎi-syìng
  - Gwoyeu Romatzyh: baeshinq
  - Palladius: байсин (bajsin)
  - Sinological IPA ^(key): /paɪ̯²¹⁴⁻²¹ ɕiŋ⁵¹/
- (Standard Chinese)
  - Hanyu Pinyin: bóxìng
  - Zhuyin: ㄅㄛˊ ㄒㄧㄥˋ
  - Tongyong Pinyin: bósìng
  - Wade–Giles: po²-hsing⁴
  - Yale: bwó-syìng
  - Gwoyeu Romatzyh: borshinq
  - Palladius: босин (bosin)
  - Sinological IPA ^(key): /pu̯ɔ³⁵ ɕiŋ⁵¹/
- (Dungan)
  - Cyrillic and Wiktionary: быйщин (bɨyxin, I-I)
  - Sinological IPA ^(key): /pei²⁴ ɕiŋ²⁴/
  (Note: Dungan pronunciation is currently experimental and may be inaccurate.)
Cantonese
- (Standard Cantonese, Guangzhou–Hong Kong)
  - Jyutping: baak³ sing³
  - Yale: baak sing
  - Cantonese Pinyin: baak⁸ sing³
  - Guangdong Romanization: bag³ xing³
  - Sinological IPA ^(key): /paːk̚³ sɪŋ³³/
Gan
- (Nanchang)
  - Wiktionary: 'bet⁶ xin⁴
  - Sinological IPA ^(key): /ˈpɛt̚⁵ ɕin³⁵/
Hakka
- (Sixian, incl. Miaoli and Neipu)
  - Pha̍k-fa-sṳ: pak-siang
  - Hakka Romanization System: bag^ˋ xiang
  - Hagfa Pinyim: bag⁵ xiang⁴
  - Sinological IPA: /pak̚² si̯aŋ⁵⁵/
Southern Min
- (Hokkien: Kaohsiung)
  - Pe̍h-ōe-jī: peh-sèⁿ
  - Tâi-lô: peh-sènn
  - Phofsit Daibuun: pehsvex
  - IPA (Kaohsiung): /pe(ʔ)³²⁻⁴¹ sẽ²¹/
- (Hokkien: Quanzhou, Taipei, Xiamen, Philippines)
  - Pe̍h-ōe-jī: peh-sìⁿ
  - Tâi-lô: peh-sìnn
  - Phofsit Daibuun: pehsvix
  - IPA (Taipei): /pe(ʔ)³²⁻⁵³ sĩ¹¹/
  - IPA (Quanzhou, Philippines): /pe(ʔ)⁵ sĩ⁴¹/
  - IPA (Xiamen): /pe(ʔ)³²⁻⁵³ sĩ²¹/
- (Hokkien: Zhangzhou)
  - Pe̍h-ōe-jī: peeh-sèⁿ
  - Tâi-lô: peeh-sènn
  - IPA (Zhangzhou): /pɛ(ʔ)³²⁻⁵³ sɛ̃²¹/
- (Teochew)
  - Peng'im: bêh⁴ sên²
  - Pe̍h-ōe-jī-like: peh séⁿ
  - Sinological IPA ^(key): /peʔ²⁻⁴ sẽ⁵²⁻²¹/
Wu
- (Northern: Shanghai)
  - Wugniu: ⁷paq-shin
  - MiniDict: pah^入 shin
  - Wiktionary Romanisation (Shanghai): ⁴paq-xin
  - Sinological IPA (Shanghai): /paʔ³³ ɕin⁴⁴/

Middle Chinese: paek sjengH

Rime
Character	百	姓
Reading #	1/1	1/1
Initial (聲)	幫 (1)	心 (16)
Final (韻)	陌 (113)	清 (121)
Tone (調)	Checked (Ø)	Departing (H)
Openness (開合)	Open	Open
Division (等)	II	III
Fanqie	博陌切	息正切
Baxter	paek	sjengH
Reconstructions
Zhengzhang Shangfang	/pˠæk̚/	/siᴇŋ^H/
Pan Wuyun	/pᵚak̚/	/siɛŋ^H/
Shao Rongfen	/pak̚/	/siæŋ^H/
Edwin Pulleyblank	/paɨjk̚/	/siajŋ^H/
Li Rong	/pɐk̚/	/siɛŋ^H/
Wang Li	/pɐk̚/	/sĭɛŋ^H/
Bernhard Karlgren	/pɐk̚/	/si̯ɛŋ^H/
Expected Mandarin Reflex	bo	xìng
Expected Cantonese Reflex	bak¹	sing³

Old Chinese
(Baxter–Sagart): /*pˤrak seŋ-s/

(Zhengzhang): /*praːɡ sleŋs/

Baxter–Sagart system 1.1 (2014)
Character	百	姓
Reading #	1/1	1/1
Modern Beijing (Pinyin)	bǎi	xìng
Middle Chinese	‹ pæk ›	‹ sjeng^H ›
Old Chinese	/*pˁrak/	/*seŋ-s/
English	hundred	surname
Notes for Old Chinese notations in the Baxter–Sagart system: * Parentheses "()" indicate uncertain presence; * Square brackets "[]" indicate uncertain identity, e.g. [t] as coda may in fact be -t or -p; Angle brackets "<>" indicate infix; * Hyphen "-" indicates morpheme boundary; * Period "." indicates syllable boundary.

Zhengzhang system (2003)
Character	百	姓
Reading #	1/1	1/1
No.	194	11359
Phonetic component	白	生
Rime group	鐸	耕
Rime subdivision	0	0
Corresponding MC rime	伯	性
Old Chinese	/*praːɡ/	/*sleŋs/

(Can we verify^{( )} this pronunciation?) (particularly: Mandarin "bóxìng" (literary varient?))

Noun

百姓

the common people; the masses; ordinary citizens
愚昧百姓 ― yúmèi bǎixìng ― to keep the common people in the dark
- 群黎百姓、徧為爾德。 [Pre-Classical Chinese, trad.]
  群黎百姓、徧为尔德。 [Pre-Classical Chinese, simp.]
  From: The Classic of Poetry, c. 11^th – 7^th centuries BCE, translated based on James Legge's version
  Qúnlí bǎixìng, biàn wéi ěr dé. [Pinyin]
  The black-haired populace – the hundred clans – universally practise your virtue.
- 憂心如酲、誰秉國成？不自為政、卒勞百姓。 [Pre-Classical Chinese, trad.]
  忧心如酲、谁秉国成？不自为政、卒劳百姓。 [Pre-Classical Chinese, simp.]
  From: The Classic of Poetry, c. 11^th – 7^th centuries BCE, translated based on James Legge's version
  Yōuxīn rú chéng, shéi bǐng guóchéng? Bù zì wéizhèng, zú láo bǎixìng. [Pinyin]
  My heart grieves, as though drunken; who's presiding over the state's ordering? (The king) himself governs not, and ends up wearing out the hundred clans.
- 奴才替天下百姓感激皇太后恩典！ [MSC, trad. and simp.]
  From: The Firmament of the Pleiades
  Núcái tì tiānxià bǎixìng gǎnjī huángtàihòu ēndiǎn! [Pinyin]
  I, on behalf of the people throughout the world, [hereby] express my gratitude for the kindness of the empress dowager!
(obsolete, Classical) all kinds of government officials
- 九族既睦，平章百姓。 [Classical Chinese, trad. and simp.]
  From: The Book of Documents, circa 4^th – 3^rd century BCE
  Jiǔzú jì mù, píngzhāng bǎixìng. [Pinyin]
  The nine family branches were then close kin; the [nobles officials of the] hundred surnames were made even and distinguished.
- 一人刑善，百姓休和。可不務乎？ [Classical Chinese, trad.]
  一人刑善，百姓休和。可不务乎？ [Classical Chinese, simp.]
  From: Commentary of Zuo, c. 4^th century BCE, translation from Zuozhuan: Commentary on the "Spring and Autumn Annals" (2017), by Stephen Durrant, Wai-yee Li and David Schaberg
  Yīrén xíng shàn, bǎixìng xiūhé. Kě bù wù hū? [Pinyin]
  One person took the good as model, and there was calm and harmony among the hundred clans. Can one do anything other than strive for it?

Synonyms

(common people):

edit

一般人 (yībānrén)
世人 (shìrén)
世間人／世间人 (Hokkien)
人士 (rénshì) (literary)
人民 (rénmín)
人群 (rénqún)
人萌 (rénméng) (literary)
俗人 (súrén)
俗子 (súzǐ) (literary)
𫣆人 (Hakka)
兆民 (zhàomín) (archaic)
公眾／公众 (gōngzhòng)
凡人 (fánrén)
凡夫 (fánfū) (literary)
匹夫 (pǐfū) (literary)
四眾人／四众人 (si³ zing³ nang⁵) (Teochew)
士人 (shìrén) (archaic)
大眾／大众 (dàzhòng)
子民 (zǐmín) (historical)
家人 (jiārén) (archaic)
布衣 (bùyī) (historical)
常人 (chángrén)
平人 (píngrén) (literary)
平常人 (píngchángrén)
平民 (píngmín)
庶人 (shùrén) (literary)
庶民 (shùmín) (literary)
斯人 (sīrén) (Classical Chinese)
普通人 (pǔtōngrén)
民人 (mínrén) (literary)
民眾／民众 (mínzhòng)
烝民 (zhēngmín) (literary)
烝黎 (zhēnglí) (Classical Chinese)
白衣 (báiyī) (historical)
白衣人 (báiyīrén) (historical)
白身 (báishēn) (archaic)
白身人 (báishēnrén) (archaic)
眾人／众人 (zhòngrén) (literary)
萬姓／万姓 (wànxìng) (archaic)
群眾／群众 (qúnzhòng)
老百姓 (lǎobǎixìng)
良人 (liángrén) (literary)
草民 (cǎomín) (the worthless ordinary people)
草菅 (cǎojiān) (Classical Chinese, figurative)
草野 (cǎoyě) (literary, figurative)
萌 (literary)
野人 (yěrén) (archaic)
黎庶 (líshù) (literary)
黎民 (límín) (literary)
黎首 (líshǒu) (archaic)
黔首 (qiánshǒu) (archaic)
黔黎 (archaic)

(all kinds of government officials):

edit

庶僚 (shùliáo) (literary)
百官 (bǎiguān) (literary)
百辟 (bǎibì) (literary)
眾官／众官 (zhòngguān) (literary)

Derived terms

備百姓／备百姓
只許州官放火，不許百姓點燈／只许州官放火，不许百姓点灯 (zhǐ xǔ zhōuguān fànghuǒ, bùxǔ bǎixìng diǎndēng)
小百姓
平等百姓
平章百姓
平頭百姓／平头百姓
百姓之心
百姓公
老百姓 (lǎobǎixìng)
黎民百姓

Descendants

Sino-Xenic (百姓):

→ Japanese: 百(ひゃく)姓(しょう) (hyakushō); 百(はく)姓(せい) (hakusei); 百(ひゃく)姓(せい) (hyakusei); 百(ひゃく)姓(そう) (hyakusō)
→ Korean: 백성(百姓) (baekseong)
→ Vietnamese: bá tánh (百姓), bách tính (百姓)

Others:

→ Vietnamese: trăm họ (calque)
→ Zhuang: beksingq

References

^ Vogt, Nick, “Between Kin and King: Social Aspects of Western Zhou Ritual” (Ph.D. dissertation: Columbia University, 2012). pp. 44, 52-54 doi: 10.7916/D82231V3
^ Crone, Thomas. (2016). The semantic change of the word min 民 in texts of the Eastern Zhou Period (771–221 BC). Asiatische Studien - Études Asiatiques. 70. p. 693, fn. 42. doi: 10.5167/uzh-151500

Japanese

Etymology 1

Kanji in this term
百	姓
ひゃく Grade: 1	しょう Grade: S
goon

From Middle Chinese compound 百姓 (paek sjeng^H, literally “hundred clans”). Compare modern Hakka 百姓 (pak-siang).^[1]

The goon reading, so likely an earlier borrowing.

First cited to the 続日本紀 (Shoku Nihongi) in a portion dated to 701 CE.^[1]

Pronunciation

(Tokyo) ひゃくしょー [hyàkúshóꜜò] (Nakadaka – [3])^[2]
IPA^(key): [ça̠kɯ̟̊ɕo̞ː]

Noun

百(ひゃく)姓(しょう) • (hyakushō) ^{←ひやくしやう (fyakusyau)^?}

[from circa 1120] (historical or derogatory) a farmer; a peasant; the peasantry in general
Synonyms: 農民, 農家

きさま、百(ひゃく)姓(しょう)の生(う)まれだな？
Kisama, hyakushō no umare da na?
You are from a peasant family, aren't you?
1. [1731] (derogatory) country bumpkin
2. [from 1759] (historical) in reference to the Edo period, short for 本百姓 (honbyakushō, “the hundred commoner families”, a class of farmers with specific rights and responsibilities)
[from 701] (archaic) commoners, the common people; the masses; ordinary citizens
Synonyms: 公民, 民衆

Synonyms

(the people): 大御宝(おおみたから) (ōmitakara) (poetic)
(bumpkin): 田舎者(いなかもの) (inakamono)

Idioms

百姓(ひゃくしょう)と楽(たの)しみを同(おな)じゅうす (hyakushō to tanoshimi o onajūsu): “taking one's pleasure the same as a commoner” → a lord must know the joys and pains of the people
百姓(ひゃくしょう)と油(あぶら)は絞(しぼ)るほど出(で)る (hyakushō to abura wa shiboru hodo deru): “commoners and oil [sources] give more the harder you squeeze” → the more you demand of the people, the more you get. Compare blood from a stone of roughly opposite meaning.
百姓(ひゃくしょう)の泣(な)き言(ご)と医者(といしゃ)の手柄話(てがらばなし) (hyakushō no nakigoto to isha no tegarabanashi): “the complaints of the peasants and the boasting of the doctors” → a contrast between peasants complaining of poor harvests in a bid to reduce their tax liabilities, against the feats of doctors who will do their utmost to treat even a terminal patient: by extension, an exhortation to put in 101% without grumbling about it
百姓(ひゃくしょう)の去年物語(こぞものがたり) (hyakushō no kozo monogatari): “a peasant's tale of last year” → alluding to how peasants would often claim that last year's harvest was better than this year, in a bid to reduce their tax liabilities
百姓(ひゃくしょう)の作(つく)り倒(だお)れ (hyakushō no tsukuridaore): “a peasant's manufactured collapse” → describing how peasants working too hard can result in too much produce on the market, causing a price collapse and sizable losses: to be one's own undoing, to defeat oneself by working too hard
百姓(ひゃくしょう)の秋大名(あきだいみょう) (hyakushō no aki daimyō): “a peasant's autumn lord” → a metaphor for how the autumn season following the harvest is a time of bounty for commoners
百姓(ひゃくしょう)の所務分(しょむわ)けで田分(たわ)け尽(つ)くす (hyakushō no shomuwake de tawake tsukusu): “splitting up a commoner's inheritance amounts to a parceling out of fields / to complete nonsense” → a pun on the reading tawake for both 田分け (“splitting up fields”) and 戯け (“nonsense”), based on how dividing up fields for every generation's inheritance ultimately leads to very small plots and inefficient farming
百姓(ひゃくしょう)の人(ひと)を斬(き)ったよう (hyakushō no hito o kitta yō): “like cutting a commoner” → a big commotion
百姓(ひゃくしょう)の雁(がん)を押(お)さえたよう (hyakushō no gan o osaeta yō): “like holding down a commoner's goose” → a big commotion
百姓(ひゃくしょう)の息(いき)が天(てん)に昇(のぼ)る (hyakushō no iki ga ten ni noboru): “a commoner's breath [i.e. spirit] can reach heaven” → where there's a will, there's a way, no matter how weak
百姓(ひゃくしょう)の不作話(ふさくばなし)と商人(あきんど)の損話(そんばなし) (hyakushō no fusakubanashi to akindo no sonbanashi): “peasants' talk of poor harvests and merchants' talk of business losses” → farmers and businessmen always grumble about how things aren't going well
百姓(ひゃくしょう)の万能(ばんのう) (hyakushō no bannō): “a commoner's all-around abilities” → alluding to how a peasant (now farmer) had to be self-reliant and a jack-of-all-trades
百姓百色 (ひゃくしょうひゃくいろ): “a hundred commoners, a hundred colors” → the word "commoners" might be a collective noun, but the people included in that category are various and sundry

Derived terms

百姓一揆(ひゃくしょういっき) (hyakushō ikki): a peasants' revolt or uprising
百姓請け, 百姓請(ひゃくしょううけ) (hyakushō uke): a kind of tax system in the medieval period, whereby local influential families would undertake local tax administration on behalf of the lord
百姓往来(ひゃくしょうおうらい) (hyakushō ōrai): educational materials for commoners' children
百姓仕事(ひゃくしょうしごと) (hyakushō shigoto): commoners' work, farm work
百姓代(ひゃくしょうだい) (hyakushō dai): during the Edo period, the administrative head, advocate, and representative of a village's commoners
百姓分(ひゃくしょうぶん) (hyakushō bun): the commoner class, the peasant or agricultural caste
百姓家, 百姓屋(ひゃくしょうや) (hyakushō ya): a commoner's house, a farmhouse
百姓読み, 百姓読(ひゃくしょうよみ) (hyakushō yomi): reading kanji in one's own way, guessing the reading and/or meaning for each character based on its shape or component elements
浦(うら)百(びゃく)姓(しょう) (urabyakushō)
大(おお)百(びゃく)姓(しょう) (ōbyakushō)
長(おさ)百(びゃく)姓(しょう) (osabyakushō)
乙(おと)名(な)百(びゃく)姓(しょう) (otonabyakushō)
隠(おん)田(でん)百(びゃく)姓(しょう) (ondenbyakushō)
門(かど)百(びゃく)姓(しょう) (kadobyakushō)
小(こ)百(びゃく)姓(しょう) (kobyakushō)
小(こ)前(まえ)百(びゃく)姓(しょう) (komaebyakushō)
惣(そう)百(びゃく)姓(しょう) (sōbyakushō)
高(たか)持(もち)百(びゃく)姓(しょう) (takamochibyakushō)
潰(つぶ)れ百(びゃく)姓(しょう) (tsuburebyakushō)
土(ど)百(びゃく)姓(しょう) (dobyakushō)
どん百(びゃく)姓(しょう) (donbyakushō)
被(ひ)官(かん)百(びゃく)姓(しょう) (hikanbyakushō)
本(ほん)百(びゃく)姓(しょう) (honbyakushō)
水(みず)呑(の)み百(びゃく)姓(しょう) (mizunomibyakushō)
脇(わき)百(びゃく)姓(しょう) (wakibyakushō)

Verb

百(ひゃく)姓(しょう)する • (hyakushō suru) ^{←ひやくしやう (fyakusyau)^?}suru (stem 百(ひゃく)姓(しょう)し (hyakushō shi), past 百(ひゃく)姓(しょう)した (hyakushō shita))

[from 1906] to farm, to till the fields

Conjugation

Conjugation of "百姓する" (See Appendix:Japanese verbs.)

Katsuyōkei ("stem forms")
Mizenkei ("imperfective")	百姓し	ひゃくしょうし	hyakushō shi
Ren’yōkei ("continuative")	百姓し	ひゃくしょうし	hyakushō shi
Shūshikei ("terminal")	百姓する	ひゃくしょうする	hyakushō suru
Rentaikei ("attributive")	百姓する	ひゃくしょうする	hyakushō suru
Kateikei ("hypothetical")	百姓すれ	ひゃくしょうすれ	hyakushō sure
Meireikei ("imperative")	百姓せよ¹ 百姓しろ²	ひゃくしょうせよ¹ ひゃくしょうしろ²	hyakushō seyo¹ hyakushō shiro²
Key constructions
Passive	百姓される	ひゃくしょうされる	hyakushō sareru
Causative	百姓させる百姓さす	ひゃくしょうさせるひゃくしょうさす	hyakushō saseru hyakushō sasu
Potential	百姓できる	ひゃくしょうできる	hyakushō dekiru
Volitional	百姓しよう	ひゃくしょうしよう	hyakushō shiyō
Negative	百姓しない	ひゃくしょうしない	hyakushō shinai
Negative continuative	百姓せず	ひゃくしょうせず	hyakushō sezu
Formal	百姓します	ひゃくしょうします	hyakushō shimasu
Perfective	百姓した	ひゃくしょうした	hyakushō shita
Conjunctive	百姓して	ひゃくしょうして	hyakushō shite
Hypothetical conditional	百姓すれば	ひゃくしょうすれば	hyakushō sureba
¹ Written imperative ² Spoken imperative

Etymology 2

Kanji in this term
百	姓
はく Grade: 1	せい Grade: S
kan'on

Kan'on reading of both characters, influenced by later borrowing from Middle Chinese.^[1]

Cited to the mid-Muromachi period, roughly the 1400s.^[1]

Pronunciation

IPA^(key): [ha̠kɯ̟se̞ː]

Noun

百(はく)姓(せい) • (hakusei)

[from the 1400s] (rare) See under Etymology 1

Etymology 3

Kanji in this term
百	姓
ひゃく Grade: 1	せい Grade: S
goon	kan'on

Kan'on reading of the second character, influenced by later borrowing from Middle Chinese.^[1]

First cited to a text from 1776.^[1]

Pronunciation

(Tokyo) ひゃくせー [hyàkúséé] (Heiban – [0])^[3]
IPA^(key): [ça̠kɯ̟se̞ː]

Noun

百(ひゃく)姓(せい) • (hyakusei) ^{←ひやくせい (fyakusei)^?}

[1776] (rare) See under Etymology 1

Etymology 4

Kanji in this term
百	姓
ひゃく Grade: 1	そう Grade: S
goon	kan'on

Non-palatalized variant of hyakushō reading, commonly found in writings from the Heian period through the Muromachi period.^[1]

First cited to the Utsubo Monogatari of roughly 999 CE.^[1]

Pronunciation

IPA^(key): [ça̠kɯ̟so̞ː]

Noun

百(ひゃく)姓(そう) • (hyakusō) ^{←ひやくさう (fyakusau)^?}

[from 999] (obsolete) See under Etymology 1

References

↑ ^1.0 ^1.1 ^1.2 ^1.3 ^1.4 ^1.5 ^1.6 ^1.7 Shōgaku Tosho (1988) 国語大辞典（新装版） [Unabridged Dictionary of Japanese (Revised Edition)] (in Japanese), Tōkyō: Shogakukan, →ISBN
^ NHK Broadcasting Culture Research Institute, editor (1998), NHK日本語発音アクセント辞典 [NHK Japanese Pronunciation Accent Dictionary] (in Japanese), Tokyo: NHK Publishing, Inc., →ISBN
^ Matsumura, Akira, editor (2006), 大辞林 [Daijirin] (in Japanese), Third edition, Tokyo: Sanseidō, →ISBN

Korean

Hanja in this term
百	姓

Noun

百姓 • (baekseong) (hangeul 백성)

hanja form^? of 백성 (“The populace; the common people”)

Vietnamese

chữ Hán Nôm in this term
百	姓

Noun

百姓

chữ Hán form of bá tánh (“the commoners; the common folk; the citizens”).

[1] Vogt, Nick, “Between Kin and King: Social Aspects of Western Zhou Ritual” (Ph.D. dissertation: Columbia University, 2012). pp. 44, 52-54 doi: 10.7916/D82231V3

[2] Crone, Thomas. (2016). The semantic change of the word min 民 in texts of the Eastern Zhou Period (771–221 BC). Asiatische Studien - Études Asiatiques. 70. p. 693, fn. 42. doi: 10.5167/uzh-151500

[KDJ-3] 1.0 ^1.1 ^1.2 ^1.3 ^1.4 ^1.5 ^1.6 ^1.7 Shōgaku Tosho (1988) 国語大辞典（新装版） [Unabridged Dictionary of Japanese (Revised Edition)] (in Japanese), Tōkyō: Shogakukan, →ISBN

[NHK-4] NHK Broadcasting Culture Research Institute, editor (1998), NHK日本語発音アクセント辞典 [NHK Japanese Pronunciation Accent Dictionary] (in Japanese), Tokyo: NHK Publishing, Inc., →ISBN

[DJR-5] Matsumura, Akira, editor (2006), 大辞林 [Daijirin] (in Japanese), Third edition, Tokyo: Sanseidō, →ISBN

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