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Sasan (land grant)

Sasan (Dingal for 'self-ruled'; IAST: Sāṃsaṇa) was a tax-free land grant given in the form of either partial or whole villages to the Charanas by rulers in medieval India. These grants were given in perpetuity and enjoyed superior rights compared to other land tenures.

History

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The concept of Sasan refers to villages given to Charanas as a gift or reward by the state, exempt from revenue obligations.[1][2] Charanas as a people commanded great respectability and influence in Rajputana, given high positions and honors in the royal courts[3] and being considered a form of landed nobility. They were granted permanent tax-free land and enjoyed hereditary jagir, or sasan rights.[4] These jagirs were granted to Charanas in recognition of their commendable services in administration,[5] historiography, military,[6] and literary merit.[7] They were responsible for preserving socially authenticated memory and were supported accordingly.[8] British accounts listed them among the "leading men of the [Rajput] State". They were held in high esteem and treated as sacrosanct and inviolable, being referred to as the Devīputra and classed together with "the cow and the Brahman".[9]

The Charanas had a close relationship with the rulers and acted as mediators in political affairs.[10] They were also responsible for writing the histories of royal and cadet lines, affirming the status of the Rajput ruler by celebrating his valor and rank among his clan and other Charanas.[11] They were rewarded with gifts of wealth, cattle, and revenue-free land grants called sasan grants, among other ceremonial gifts.[12] These grants were in the form of land free of obligations, and grant holders were entitled to collect land revenue and other cesses in their territories.[13]

The British agent Archibald Adams, in his history of Rajputana states, noted that the Charanas were "a sacred race, holding large religious grants of land".[14] In the kingdom of Marwar, circa 1880, the Charanas controlled over 350 tax-free estates, estimated to be worth over 400,000 rupees in total revenue assessment.[15]

Features

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Charanas received feudal holdings in recognition of their services to the kings or state. These holdings differed from the usual jagir tenures in several ways:[16][17][18]

  • Non-taxable:— Charanas did not have to pay any tax or rent on their jagir lands. All income from the Sasan territory remained with the Charanas. Sometimes, few Charana fief-holders did choose to pay a share of their income to the State, though they were under no such obligation.
  • Jurisdiction:— There was no outside interference in the matters of administration and governance in the Sasan lands of Charanas. Within Sasan territories, the Raja (king) had no jurisdiction over inhabitants, and all the disputes were resolved under Charana jurisdiction. [note 1]
  • Inalienable & Inheritable:— These lands were given to the Charana awardee and their descendants in perpetuity. However, in later periods, when the lineage of the original grantee ended, the fief was generally resumed by the state.[20]

Furthermore, the grantee had the right to mortgage, gift, transfer and sometimes even sell their right of revenue from the estate to others. For example, Nainsi's Vigat records that Kisna, a Charana, sold a portion of his village to Kachara, a Brahman, which had previously been mortgaged to the same person.[21] In later period, restrictions were placed on selling or gifting sasan lands, although mortgaging was still permitted.[22]

Grant Records

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The granting of these Sasan estates was recorded both orally as well as engraved on copper-plates known as tamrapatra, which could withstand the vagaries of time.[23][24] These tamrapatras typically included the purpose of the grant as well as the names of the grantor and grantee.[7] All the sanads and parwanās for these grants were maintained in the office of the diwan,[25] and used the ancient phrase that the grant should continue "till the moon and sun endure".[21]

Composition

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The term "Sasan" became a comprehensive term used to denote all land grants of a tax-free or religious nature, thus covering all grants made to charanas, sadhus, nath jogis, brahmins, bhats, yatis and temples.[12] Terms such as dharmada, punyarth bhom, muafi, punya, and udik-inam, which signified religious nature of the grant, were synonym with Sasan.[23]

Official documents from the royal courts provide details about the composition of various land grants enjoyed by jagirdars. For example, in 1614, the Kingdom of Bikaner had 175 villages as tax-free or Sasan estates. Of these, 111 villages were held by the Charanas while the rest 64 were given to Brahmins.[8] In the Kingdom of Mewar, out of total 13.5 parts division of land, 7 parts belonged to jagirdars and bhomiya, 3 parts belonged to the Sasan, and 3.5 parts belonged to the state's Khalsa.[26] Nainsi recorded the distribution of villages under the Sasan category in Marwar ra Paragana ri Vigat.[21]

Sasan Villages of Marwar in 1891
(out of 621 sasan villages)
Mardumshumari Rajmarwar [27]

  Muslim (1%)
  Nakarchi (0%)
  Nath (3%)
  Temple (2%)
  Unknown (6%)
  Ascetics (incl. sadhus and Gosains) (2%)
  Bhat and Rao (2%)
  Bhopa (1%)
  Brahmin (all sects) (30%)
  Charana (53%)
Composition of Sasan villages in Marwar during 17th century[21]
Marwar ra Paragana ri Vigat
S. No. Pargana (Administrative Units) Charanas Brahmans Bhat Miscellaneous
1. Jodhpur 75 62 01 08
2. Sojat 17 15 - -
3. Jaitaran 8.5 08.5 - 01
4. Phalodi 01 04 - 04
5. Merta 27 15.2 01 04
6. Siwana 13 17 - -
7. Pokaran 11 04 - -
8. Sachore 09 - - 02
9. Jalore 12 01 02 07
Total 173.5 127 04 26
Percentage of total Sasan villages 52.34 % 38.42 % 1.20 % 7.86 %

Comparison

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Comparing Sasan grants with the contemporary Mughal madad-i ma'ash grants, the following observations can be made:—[21]

  • Both types of grants aimed to serve the same purpose of religious charity. While the madad-i ma'ash grants were mainly given to town residents, the sāsan-grantees seem to have been rural residents.
  • Both grants had a proportion of total income to total revenue that was about equal. The revenue of madad-i ma'ash grants did not rise above 5.84% of the total jama' in Akbar's time, while the revenue of Sasan grants in Marwar did not exceed 5.09% of the total except in Sojat.
  • Sasan grants suggest a possibility of a class with certain zamindari rights emerging, while madad-i ma'ash lands do not indicate a strong tendency of this nature, except in Aurangzeb's time when such grants were made hereditaryin 1690.

Adalat Khat Darshan

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The concept of Khat Darshan refers to six communities with socio-religious character, including Charana, Brahmin, Mahant, Nath, Yati, and Jogi (ascetics). In Mewar, jagirdars who were beneficiaries of the Sasan grants were known as Khat Darshan.[28][29]

The Charanas used to rely on the practice of Chandi or Traga (ritual self-mutilation leading to suicide) for securing justice and fulfillment of their demands. However, changes in the socio-legal system brought by the British Raj compelled them to turn to cultivation. This led to illegal grabbing of land among siblings, with disputes invariably involving litigation with their partners due to their custom of inheritance, which required equal division of property (charania-bant). This marked a shift towards the acceptance of colonial laws as they had previously considered themselves above the law. Land disputes among the Charanas were so numerous that a separate court, the 'Adalat Khat Darshan', was established for their settlement. This 'Adalat Khat Darshan' court was established in 1839 in Jodhpur (Marwar), with elite Charanas in-charge,[30] to settle disputes involving Charanas, Brahmans, and Purohits.[31][32] Through this court, they sought to redress disputes over land use, water infrastructure, and other agro-social grievances.[33]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ For centuries, it was an established principle that no Kshatriya could trespass or interfere in the lands of the Charanas, the "Sasana" estates.[19]

Bibliography

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  • Bhadani, B. L. (1999). Peasants, Artisans and Entrepreneurs - Economy of Marwar in the Seventeenth Century. Rawat Publications. ISBN 9788170335047.
  • Cannon, Brian T. (2023-03-28). "An Enduring Prestige: Land Grants in a Princely State Census". Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient. 66 (3–4): 422–461. doi:10.1163/15685209-12341599. ISSN 1568-5209.

References

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  1. ^ Lawaniya, Dr. Kanchan (2016). "Assessment & Realization of Revenue in Bikaner State during 18th Century" (PDF). Rajasthan History Congress. 31 – via rajhisco. Sasan: The villages which were given to Charan or Brahmins as a gift or reward by the state and these were revenue free.
  2. ^ Sharma, Kanhaiyalal (1986). Caste, Class, and Social Movements. Rawat Publications. ISBN 978-81-7033-030-1. Charitable grants were given to Charans, Brahmins, Naths and temples, etc. . These grants were also rent-free, and were given in lieu of one's commendable services.
  3. ^ Dave, Rajendra Kumar (1992). Society and Culture of Marwar. Kusumanjali Book World. The Charans were given special status in the Court. They received gifts from Rajputs at all feasts and marriages and held extensive lands and villages granted to them under rent free tenure.
  4. ^ Sherring, Mattheio Atmore (1975). The Tribes and Castes of Rajasthan: Together with Description of Sacred and Celebrated Places of Historical Value of Rajasthan. Cosmo. The Charans are a people of great respectability and influence in Rajputana. They also perform a number of miscellaneous duties in connection with their high office. The Charans possess a good many villages in some States. They are a sacred race, and possess many privileges in virtue of their position. In Marwar, they hold large grants of land, which have been given to them from religious motives, and for the same reasons enjoy certain immunities as traders.
  5. ^ Marcus, George E. (1983). Elites, Ethnographic Issues. University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 978-0-8263-0658-6. Charans, Brahmins, Muslims, and Kayasths might , as a result of state service , be given jagirs and court honors
  6. ^ Research, Rajasthan Institute of Historical (1968). Journal of the Rajasthan Institute of Historical Research. ...the charanas also used to fight in the battle fields along the kings. They were equally rich in the use of sword, pen and voice...They used to receive many big Jagirs from the kings!
  7. ^ a b Sethia, Madhu (2005). "British Paramountcy- Reaction and Response by the Nineteenth Century Poets of Rajasthan". Social Scientist. 33 (11/12) – via JSTOR. It was an acceptable practice for the Charan to lay down the ideals for the Rajputs and popularize them through their customary role of being the custodians and narrators of the legends. They were also honoured by the showering of gifts on special occasions often in recognition of their literary merit. They used their position to establish ideals for the Rajputs and tried to make them socially acceptable, while also voicing social resentment against any violation of these ideals by the Rajputs. It made them the conscience-keepers of Rajput polity.
  8. ^ a b Guha, Sumit (2019-11-01). History and Collective Memory in South Asia, 1200–2000. University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74623-4.
  9. ^ Piliavsky, Anastasia (2011). Theft, Patronage & Society in Western India. Oxford University. Prior to their dislocation from positions of authority in the colonial period, royal Chāraṇs were equal, or even superior, in status to royal Brāhmaṇs (Tessitori 1917; Vidal 1997: 92)... They had a high place in the court (Waghorne 1985: 11)37 and received permanent tax-free land grants, known as muāfis and śāśans (Imperial Gazetteer of India 1908, vol. 24: 100).38 Royal Chāraṇs thus came to comprise a sort of landed nobility in Rājput kingdoms and were listed in British accounts among the 'leading men of the [Rājput] State' alongside nobles, state officials and royal priests (Bayley 1916 [1894]: 46, 11, 25).39 Indeed, they were held in such high esteem that their persons were treated as sacrosanct and inviolable: from the thirteenth century, the Chāraṇs have been thought of as the sacred brothers or sons of their patrons' clan goddesses (kul devīs), referred to as the Devīputra (Sons of the Goddess) (Shah & Shroff 1958: 249) and, as such, 'classed together with "the cow and the Brahman" whose slaughter was forbidden to the Rajput' (Qanungo 1960: 40).
  10. ^ Chatterjee, Anjali (1986). "SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURY LITERATURE OF RAJASTHAN FOR STUDYING SOCIAL STRUCTURE—ITS PROSPECTS AND PROBLEMS". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 47: 390–397. ISSN 2249-1937. JSTOR 44141567. Due to their intimate relations with the rulers they enjoyed their confidence and often they acted as mediators in political affairs and enjoyed hereditary jagir, i. e., susan rights.
  11. ^ Sreenivasan, Ramya (2007). The Many Lives of a Rajput Queen: Heroic Pasts in India C. 1500-1900. University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-98732-3. Hereditary rights to customary gifts—including revenue-exempt (sasan) land grants—were established between lineages of Rajput patrons and corresponding lineages of Charan clients. In return, the Charan performed the vital function of affirming his Rajput patron's status: by celebrating his valor and reasserting his rank for an audience of the latter's kin, patrons and clients.
  12. ^ a b Kothiyal, Tanuja (2016-03-14). Nomadic Narratives: A History of Mobility and Identity in the Great Indian Desert. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-316-67389-8. Sasan: Revenue free grants to Charanas, Brahmins, Jogis, Sevags, etc.
  13. ^ Jibraeil (2018-02-28). Economy and Demographic Profile of Urban Rajasthan (Eighteenth-Nineteenth Centuries). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-429-94313-3. These grants were given to them in the form of land which was free from all obligations. The grant holders were entitled to collect land revenue and other cesses in their territories.
  14. ^ Adams, Archibald (1899). The Western Rajputana States: A Medico-topographical and General Account of Marwar, Sirohi, Jaisalmir. Junior army & navy stores, limited.
  15. ^ Guha, Sumit (2019-11-01). History and Collective Memory in South Asia, 1200–2000. University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74623-4.
  16. ^ Chatterjee, Anjali (1986). "SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURY LITERATURE OF RAJASTHAN FOR STUDYING SOCIAL STRUCTURE—ITS PROSPECTS AND PROBLEMS". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 47: 390–397. ISSN 2249-1937. JSTOR 44141567.
  17. ^ Paul, Kim (1993-01-01). "Negotiating sacred space: The Mandirand the Oran as contested sites". South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies. 16 (sup001): 49–60. doi:10.1080/00856409308723191. ISSN 0085-6401.
  18. ^ Singh, Sabita (2019-05-27). The Politics of Marriage in India: Gender and Alliance in Rajasthan. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-909828-6.
  19. ^ Cimanajī (1966). Soḍhāyaṇa: Kavi kī racanāeṃ evaṃ vistr̥ta bhūmikā sahita (in Hindi). Sañcālaka, Rājasthāna Prācyavidyā Pratishṭhāna. चारणों की 'सासण' जागीर में कोई भी क्षत्रिय किसी प्रकार की दखल नहीं कर सकता था, ऐसी सैकड़ों वर्षों से नैतिक धारणा बनी हुई थी ।
  20. ^ Rajasthan (India); Sehgal, K. K. (1962). Rajasthan District Gazetteers: Jodphur. Lands on these tenures could be given only by the ruler and on failure of descendants of the original grantee, these were reverted to the State.
  21. ^ a b c d e Bhadani, B. L. (1999). Peasants, Artisans and Entrepreneurs: Economy of Marwar in the Seventeenth Century. Rawat Publications. p. 189. ISBN 978-81-7033-504-7.
  22. ^ Hooja, Rima (2006). A History of Rajasthan. Rupa & Company. ISBN 978-81-291-0890-6. Miscellaneous taxes were sometimes charged from holders of sasan or muafi lands. Land held on jagir, bhom and sasan tenures could not be sold, but mortgaging these was permitted and was not uncommon.
  23. ^ a b Upadhyaya, Rashmi (2010). "The Position of Charans in Medieval Rajasthan" (PDF). Rajasthan History Congress. 26: 31–38 – via rajhisco. Such grants were more or less issued on the copper plates possibly to make it easy to maintain the hereditary claim by the successors of the grantee.
  24. ^ Gupta, R. K.; Bakshi, S. R. (2008). Rajasthan Through the Ages. Sarup & Sons. ISBN 978-81-7625-841-8. These grants were generally executed on copper plates so as to enable them to stand the vagaries of time instances of Shasan grants are best illustrated in some of the cases known to us. There may be many more. In the first instance, Maharana before his occupation of Chittor made a grant to Baru, the son of Barbari through whom he received five hundred horses. For his services he was given the grant of several villages in the Kailwara region which are distinct from the other grants though mentioned in one sequence in Vir Vinod.
  25. ^ Gupta, Satya Prakash (1986). The Agrarian System of Eastern Rajasthan, C. 1650-c. 1750. Manohar. ISBN 978-81-85054-11-7.
  26. ^ "Rajya me jaagir, bhom aur shasan me bhumi vibhajan". ignca.gov.in. Retrieved 2023-02-26.
  27. ^ Cannon, Brian T. (2023-03-28). "An Enduring Prestige: Land Grants in a Princely State Census". Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient. 66 (3–4): 422–461. doi:10.1163/15685209-12341599. ISSN 1568-5209.
  28. ^ Sharma, Gian Chand (1979). Administrative System of the Rajputs. Rajesh Publications.
  29. ^ Mevaṛa itihāsa ke katipaya pahalū (in Hindi). Pratāpa Śodha Pratishṭhāṇa. 1995. मेवाड़ राज्य के देव-मंदिर, ब्राह्मण, चारण, यती, सन्यासी आदि को दान में दी गई जमीन को 'षट्दर्शन' (माफी) या 'शासनी' कहते थे। इसका उपभोक्ता राज्य को सेवा व कर देने से मुक्त था।
  30. ^ Singh, Hardyal (1990). The castes of Marwar, being census report of 1891. Jodhpur: Books Treasure. OCLC 977890782.
  31. ^ Vashishtha, Professor V.K. (2016). "Transformation in the Position of Charan Community in Rajputana States during Colonial Period" (PDF). Rajasthan History Congress. 31: 155–166 – via RAJHISCO.
  32. ^ Shah, P. R. (1982). Raj Marwar During British Paramountcy: A Study in Problems and Policies Up to 1923. Sharda Publishing House. ISBN 978-0-7855-1985-0.
  33. ^ Cannon, Brian (2021). "Reconsidering Customary Law: Local Legalities in and Beyond Colonial Rajastha". cirdis-archive.univie.ac.at. Retrieved 2023-02-26.
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