Odia grammar

Odia grammar is the study of the morphological and syntactic structures, word order, case inflections, verb conjugation and other grammatical structures of Odia, an Indo-Aryan language spoken in South Asia.

Morphology

Morphology is the identification, analysis and description of the structure of morphemes and other units of meaning in the Odia language. Morphemes (called ରୁପିମ) are the smallest units of the Odia language that carry and convey a unique meaning and is grammatically appropriate. A morpheme in Odia is the most minuscule meaningful constituent which combines and synthesizes the phonemes into a meaningful expression through its (morpheme's) form & structure. Thus, in essence, the morpheme is a structural combination of phonemes in Odia. In other words, in the Odia language, the morpheme is a combination of sounds that possess and convey a meaning. A morpheme is not necessarily a meaningful word in Odia. In Odia, every morpheme is either a base or an affix (prefix or a suffix).^[1]^[2]

Examples: Base Morpheme:

ଘର (pronounced [ɡʰɔɾɔ]); lit. 'House'

Phonetic Components: ଘରକୁ = ଘ୍ ଅ ର୍ ଅ କ୍ ଉ

Morphological Components: ଘରକୁ = ଘର କୁ

ହାତ (pronounced [hatɔ]); lit. 'Hand'

Morphological Components/Derivatives:

ହାତୀ = ହାତ ଈ (ଈ = ଅଛି)

ହାତିଆ = ହାତ ଇଆ (ଇଆ = ପରିମାଣ)

ହାତୁଡ଼ି = ହାତ ଉଡ଼ି (ଉଡି = ଆକୃତି)

General analysis

The existence and span of rules of morphemes in a language depend on the "morphology" in that particular language. In a language having greater morphology, a word would have an internal compositional structure in terms of word-pieces (i.e. free morphemes – Bases) and those would also possess bound morphemes like affixes. Such a morpheme-rich language is termed as synthetic language. To the contrary, an isolating language uses independent words and in turn, the words lack internal structure. A synthetic language tends to employ affixes and internal modification of roots (i.e. free morphemes – Bases) for the same purpose of expressing additional meanings.

Odia is a moderately synthetic language. It contains definite synthetic features, such as the bound morphemes mark tense, number (plurality), gender etc. However, though the Odia language has a larger number of derivational affixes, it has virtually no inflectional morphology.

Derivational synthesis in Odia morphology

Odia morphemes of different types (nouns, verbs, affixes etc.) combine to create new words.

Relational synthesis in Odia morphology

In relationally synthesized Odia words, base morphemes (root words) join with bound morphemes to express grammatical function.

The Odia language has a tendency for commonly used words to have a 2:1 morpheme-word ratio i.e. on average; there are two morphemes in a single word. Because of this tendency, Odia is said to "possess morphology" since almost each used word has an internal compositional structure in terms of morphemes. In the Odia language, generally, separate words are used to express syntactic relationships which imparts an isolating tendency, while using inflectional morphology could have made the language more synthetic.

Components of a morpheme

There are several components of a morpheme in the Odia language:

Base: A morpheme that imparts meaning to a word.

Derivational morpheme: These morphemes alter and/or modify the meaning of the word and may create a whole new word.

Allomorphs: These are different phonetic forms or variations of a morpheme. The final morphemes in several words are pronounced differently, but they all signify plurality.

Homonyms: are morphemes that are spelled similarly but have different meanings. Such examples abound in Odia grammar and are termed as similarly pronounced words (ସମୋଚ୍ଚାରିତ ଶବ୍ଦ). Examples:

ଜୀବନ (life) and ଜୀବନ (water), ହରି (Lord Vishnu) and ହରି (Monkey).

Homophones: These are morphemes that sound alike but have different meanings and spellings. Examples: ସିତ (Black colour), ସୀତ (Plough head).

Classification

Morphemes in Odia may be classified, on the basis of word formation, characteristics into the following types:

Type	Structure	Bound	Free	Sub-types
Root	1. Simple 2. Made up of a single morpheme 3. Basis for compounding and affixation	Yes/No	Yes/No	None
Stem	1. Simple/Complex 2. Composed of one/multiple morphemes 3. Basis for affixation	Yes/No	Yes/No	None
Affix	Simple	Yes	No	Prefix, Infix, Suffix, Suprafix, Simulfix, and Circumfix
Clitic	Simple	Yes (Phonologically)	Yes (Syntactically)	Proclitic and Enclitic

Types of morphemes

Free morpheme

Independent meaningful units are free morphemes. These are elemental words. Free morpheme can stand alone as a word without help of another morpheme. It does not need anything attached to it to make a word.

ରାମ ଭାତ ଖାଉଛି = ରାମ ଭାତ(କୁ) ଖାଉଛି: କର୍ମ

ରାତି ବିତାଇଲା = ରାତି(ରେ) ବିତାଇଲା: ଅଧିକରଣ

ରାମ କଥା ଶୁଣିଲି = ରାମ(ର) କଥା ଶୁଣିଲି: ସମ୍ବନ୍ଧ ପଦ

Bound morpheme

Units which are not independent words but convey meaning on account of their usage on combination are bound morphemes. A bound morpheme is a sound or a combination of sounds that cannot stand on its own as a meaningful word. Most of the bound morphemes in Odia are ‘affixes’. An affix is a morpheme that may come at the beginning (Termed as Prefix) or the end (Termed as Suffix) of a base morpheme.

In Odia, prefixes are bound morphemes are affixes that come before a base morpheme. For example:

ଉପକୂଳ = ଉପ କୂଳ

ଉପନଦୀ = ଉପ ନଦୀ

ଅପବାଦ = ଅପ ବାଦ

ଅପରୂପ = ଅପ ରୂପ

A suffix is an affix that comes after a base morpheme. Example of suffix Bound Morphemes are:

ସାଧୁତା = ସାଧୁ ତା

ବୀରତ୍ୱ = ବୀର ତ୍ୱ

କାମିକା = କାମ ଇକା

ନିସୃୃତ = ନିଃ କୃତ

ତା, ତ୍ୱ, ଇକା are bound morphemes used suffixes.

/ସାଧୁ/, /ବୀର/, /କାମ/ etc. are ‘complete bound morphemes’ /ତା/, /ତ୍ୱ/, /ଇକା/ etc. are ‘dissected or partial bound morphemes’.

The free morphemes carry a fixed meaning while the bound morphemes exhibit large scale variations in meanings. The variable and changing meanings of the bound morphemes impart diversity to word meanings and enrich the language.

Complex or combined morpheme

In a complex morpheme, multiple free morphemes are combined to form a word and impart meaning. More than one Stem Morphemes create a complex morpheme.

Noun Noun:

ଘରଭଡ଼ା = ଘର ଭଡ଼ା

ରଙ୍ଗମଞ୍ଚ = ରଙ୍ଗ ମଞ୍ଚ

Adjective Noun: କଳା ପଟା = କଳାପଟା

Noun Adjective: ସର୍ବ ସାଧାରଣ = ସର୍ବସାଧାରଣ

Adjective Adjective: ଭୀମ କାନ୍ତ = ଭୀମକାନ୍ତ

Mixed morpheme

Where both free and bound morphemes combine to form another morpheme, the result is called a mixed morpheme. The mixed morpheme may result from the following combinations:

ମଣିଷ ପଣ ଇଆ = ମଣିଷପଣ ଇଆ = ମଣିଷପଣିଆ

ମଣିଷପଣ is a complex morpheme while ଇଆ is a bound morpheme.

Inflectional morphemes can only be suffixes. An inflectional morpheme creates a change in the function of the word. Example, ଇଲା with ସୁଗନ୍ଧ, giving rise to ସୁଗନ୍ଧିଲା, indicates past tense. Odia has innumerable inflectional morphemes, unlike only seven in English Language. Among others, these include the following:

ମାନେ, ଗୁଡ଼ା, ଗୁଡ଼ିଏ (plural, -s in English language)
ର, ଙ୍କର, ମାନଙ୍କ, ମାନଙ୍କର; -'s (possessive) are noun inflections;
ଇଲା, ନିର୍ମିତିଲା past tense (-ed),
ଉଛି; -ing (present participle) are verb inflections;

In Odia morphology, there are no adjective and adverb inflections like the comparative (-er) and superlative (-est) of English language. Instead, bound morphemes like ଠାରୁ and ରୁ, and free morphemes like ତୁଳନାରେ etc. are used.

Marker morpheme

In linguistics, a marker is a morpheme, mostly bound, that indicates the grammatical function of the target (marked) word or sentence. In a language like Odia with isolating language tendencies, it is possible to express syntactic information via separate grammatical words instead of morphology (with bound morphemes). Therefore, the marker morphemes are easily distinguished.

Verb morpheme

Verb roots can take transformation and function as morphemes.

ଖା ଇଆ = ଖିଆ = ମଣିଷଖିଆ ବାଘ

ପ୍ରଭାବ ଇଆ = ପ୍ରଭାବିଆ = ପ୍ରଭାବିଆ ମଣିଷ

Verb Morpheme can be either continuous morphemes or perfect morphemes on the basis of tense.

Verb continuous morphemes:

ଖା ଇ = ଖାଇ

ଅନୁବାଦ ଇ = ଅନୁବାଦି

Verb perfect morphemes:

ଖା ଇଲା = ଖାଇଲା

ଅନୁଭାବ ଇଲା = ଅନୁଭାବିଲା

Sub-morpheme

Sub-morphemes are metamorphosis of actual morphemes. Sub-morphemes are also called complementary morphemes or meta-morphemes. Sub-morphemes may arise on account of changes in number of noun morphemes or tense of verb morphemes or gender of noun morphemes, as under:

Number:

/ଗୋଟିଏ/ /ଘର/ = /ଗୋଟିଏ ଘର/ One House = A House

/ଗୁଡ଼ିଏ/ /ଘର/ = / ଗୁଡ଼ିଏ ଘର/ Many House = Many Houses

/ଗୋଟିଏ/ /ଲୋକ/ = /ଲୋକଟିଏ /

/ଅନେକ/ /ଲୋକ/ = /ଲୋକ/ Sub Morpheme: /ଏ /

Tense:

The sub-morphemes are different appearances of a morpheme at different tense. For instance, the present perfect morpheme in Odia is: /ଇଲା/ However, the present perfect sub-morpheme of /ଇଲା/ is /ଲା/. For instance:

/ଖା/ /ଇଲା/ = /ଖାଇଲା/

/ପା/ /ଇଲା/ = /ପାଇଲା/

are normal usage of /ଇଲା/. However, the sub-morpheme is:

/ଗ/ /ଲା/ = /ଗଲା/

/ଦେ/ /ଲା/ = /ଦେଲା/

/ନେ/ /ଲା/ = /ନେଲା/

Difference between morphemes, words and syllables in Odia

Even though morphemes combine to create a word in Odia, the morphemes are not always independent words. Some single morphemes are words while other words are composed of two or more morphemes.

In Odia, morphemes are also different from syllables. Many words have two or more syllables but only one morpheme. For example: ମୋ'ର.
On the other hand, many words have two morphemes and only one syllable; examples include ଧନୀ, ମୋଟା.

Nouns

Nouns are those which are inflected by number, gender or case markers.

Number

There are two types of numbers in Odia:

singular- ଏକବଚନ ekabacana
plural- ବହୁବଚନ bahubacana

Singular denotes one and only one person or thing and the noun may be followed or preceded by singular specifiers or singular number markers. Plural which denotes number more than one person or thing, is formed by the addition of plural suffixes to the nouns which usually occur as singular.

The singular number markers occur as suffix:

Singular suffix
Suffix	Eg.	Meaning
ଟି ṭi	କଲମଟି kalamaṭi	pen
ଟା ṭā	ଝିଅଟା jhiaṭā	daughter
ଟିଏ ṭie	ପିଲାଟିଏ pilāṭie	child

The plural number occur with nominal forms as:

No suffix- uncountable nouns
Eg	Meaning
ଚିନି cini	sugar
ବାଲି bāli	sand

Plural suffix
Suffix	Eg.	Meaning
ମାନେ māne	ଲୋକମାନେ lokamāne	people
ମାନ māna	ଗ୍ରନ୍ଥମାନ granthamāna	holy books
ଗୁଡ଼ା guṛā (guḍā)	ଭାତଗୁଡ଼ା bhātaguḍā	boiled rice
ଗୁଡ଼ାଏ guṛāe (guḍāe)	ଫଳଗୁଡ଼ାଏ phaḷaguḍāe	fruits
ଗୁଡ଼ାକ guṛāka (guḍāka)	ଚାଉଳଗୁଡ଼ାକ cāuḷaguḍāka	rice
ଗୁଡ଼ିଏ guṛie (guḍie)	ଫୁଲଗୁଡ଼ିଏ phulaguḍie	flowers
ଗୁଡ଼ିକ guṛika (guḍika)	ନଦୀଗୁଡ଼ିକ nadīguḍika	rivers
ଏ e	ପିଲେ pile	children
ସବୁ sabu	ଗାଁସବୁ gā̃sabu	villages
ଶ୍ରେଣୀ śreṇī	ପର୍ବତଶ୍ରେଣୀ parbataśreṇī	mountains
ଯାକ ẏāka (jāka)	ଘରଯାକ gharajāka	houses

Gender

There is no grammatical gender in Odia, instead gender is lexical. Though gender plays no major role in grammatical agreement between subject and predicate but it is accounted for in nominal inflections. There are three types of gender:

masculine- ପୁଲିଙ୍ଗ puliṅga
feminine- ସ୍ତ୍ରୀଲିଙ୍ଗ striliṅga
common- ଉଭୟଲିଙ୍ଗ ubhayaliṅga
neuter- କ୍ଲୀବଲିଙ୍ଗ klibaliṅga

Different words for gender
Male	Meaning	Female	Meaning
ବାପା bāpā	father	ମା mā	mother
ପୁଅ pua	son	ଝିଅ jhia	daughter
ଭାଇ bhāi	brother	ଭଉଣୀ bhauṇī	sister
ସ୍ୱାମୀ swāmī	husband	ସ୍ତ୍ରୀ strī	wife
ରାଜା rājā	king	ରାଣୀ rāṇī	queen
ଷଣ୍ଢ ṣaṇḍha	bull	ଗାଈ gāī	cow

Prefix
Male	Meaning	Female	Meaning
ପୁରୁଷ ଲୋକ purusha loka	male person	ସ୍ତ୍ରୀ ଲୋକ stri loka	female person
ପୁଅ ପିଲା pua pilā	male child	ଝିଅ ପିଲା jhia pilā	female child
ପୁରୁଷ ଯାତ୍ରୀ purusha jātri	male passenger	ମହିଳା ଯାତ୍ରୀ mahiḷā jātri	female passenger
ଅଣ୍ଡିରା କୁକୁର aṇḍirā kukura	male dog	ମାଈ କୁକୁର māi kukura	female dog
ଅଣ୍ଡିରା ଛେଳି aṇḍirā cheḷi	male goat	ମାଈ ଛେଳି māi cheḷi	female goat

Suffix
Suffix	Male	Meaning	Female	Meaning
ଆ ā	ସଭ୍ୟ sabhya	male member	ସଭ୍ୟା sabhyā	female member
	ଶିଷ୍ୟ śishya	male student	ଶିଷ୍ୟା śishyā	female student
	ଦୁଷ୍ଟ dushṭa	naughty(m)	ଦୁଷ୍ଟା dushṭā	naughty(f)
ଆ ā (morpho-phonemic change- ଅ a to ଇ i)	ବାଳକ bāḷaka	boy	ବାଳିକା bāḷikā	girl
	ଗାୟକ gāyaka	male singer	ଗାୟିକା gāyikā	female singer
	ନାୟକ nāyaka	actor	ନାୟିକା nāyikā	actress
	ଶିକ୍ଷକ śikshaka	male teacher	ଶିକ୍ଷିକା śikshikā	female teacher
ଈ i	ପୁତ୍ର putra	son	ପୁତ୍ରୀ putri	daughter
	ବୁଢ଼ା buṛhā	old man	ବୁଢ଼ୀ buṛhi	old woman
	କୁମାର kumāra	young boy	କୁମାରୀ kumāri	young girl
	ସୁନ୍ଦର sundara	handsome(m)	ସୁନ୍ଦରୀ sundari	beautiful(f)
	ଦେବ deba	god	ଦେବୀ debi	goddess
ଈ i (morpho-phonemic change- ଆ ā to ଈ i)	ଟୋକା ṭokā	boy	ଟୋକୀ ṭoki	girl
ଈ i (morpho-phonemic change- ଆ ā to ଈ i)	ଛୋଟା choṭā	lame(m)	ଛୋଟୀ choṭi	lame(f)
ଈ i (morpho-phonemic change- ଅ a to ଆ ā)	କଣା kaṇā	blind(m)	କାଣୀ kāṇi	blind(f)
ଈ i (morpho-phonemic change- ଅ a to ଆ ā)	ସଳା saḷā	brother-in-law	ସାଳୀ sāḷi	sister-in-law
ଈ i (morpho-phonemic change- ଆ ā to ରୀ ri)	ନେତା netā	male leader	ନେତ୍ରୀ netri	female leader
ଈ i (morpho-phonemic change- ଆ ā to ରୀ ri)	ରଚୈତା racaitā	author	ରଚୈତ୍ରୀ racaitri	female author
ଣୀ ṇi	ଚୋର cora	male thief	ଚୋରଣୀ coraṇi	female thief
ଣୀ ṇi	ମୂଲିଆ muliā	male labourer	ମୂଲିଆଣୀ muliāṇi	female labourer
ଣୀ ṇi (morpho-phonemic change- ଅ a to ଆ ā)	ଠାକୁର ṭhākura	god	ଠାକୁରାଣୀ ṭhākurāṇi	goddess
	ମାଷ୍ଟର māshṭara	male teacher	ମାଷ୍ଟ୍ରାଣୀ māshṭrāṇi	female teacher
	ତନ୍ତୀ tanti	male weaver	ତନ୍ତୀଆଣୀ tantiāṇi	female weaver
	ଡାକ୍ତର ḍāktara	male doctor	ଡାକ୍ତରାଣୀ ḍāktarāṇi	female doctor
ଣୀ ṇi (morpho-phonemic change- ଅ a to ଉ u)	ବାଘ bāgha	tiger	ବାଘୁଣୀ bāghuṇi	tigress
ଣୀ ṇi (morpho-phonemic change- ଅ a to ଉ u)	ଗଧ gadha	male donkey	ଗଧୁଣୀ gadhuṇi	female donkey
ଣୀ ṇi (morpho-phonemic change- ଆ ā to ଉ u)	ଚଷା cashā	male farmer	ଚାଷୁଣୀ cāshuṇi	female farmer
ଣୀ ṇi (morpho-phonemic change- ଇ i to ଉ u)	ମାଳି māḷi	male gardener	ମାଲୁଣୀ māluṇi	female gardener
ଣୀ ṇi (morpho-phonemic change- ଇ i to ଉ u)	ଭିକାରି bhikāri	male beggar	ଭିକାରୁଣୀ bhikāruṇi	female beggar
ନୀ ni	ବନ୍ଦୀ bandi	male prisoner	ବନ୍ଦିନୀ bandini	female prisoner
ନୀ ni	ଧନା dhanā	rich(m)	ଧନିନୀ dhanini	rich(f)

Case

Case inflection is a common characteristic of inflectional languages and are also known as case markers or "ବିଭକ୍ତି" (bibhakti) in Odia. It is both syntactical and morphological in nature. The function of the case is to indicate the grammatical or semantic relationships between nouns and also between nouns and verbs in a larger syntactic structure. There are 8 types of cases in Odia:

Cases (ବିଭକ୍ତି)
Case	Names of cases in Odia	Singular	Plural
Nominative	କର୍ତ୍ତାକାରକ karttākāraka	∅	-ମାନେ, -ଏ -māne, -e
Accusative	କର୍ମକାରକ karmakāraka	-କୁ -ku	-ମାନଙ୍କୁ -mānanku
Dative	ସମ୍ପ୍ରଦାନ କାରକ sampradāna kāraka	-କୁ -ku	-ମାନଙ୍କୁ -mānanku
Genitive	ସମ୍ବନ୍ଧ କାରକ sambandha kāraka	-ର -ra	-ମାନଙ୍କର -mānankara
Locative	ଅଧିକରଣ କାରକ adhikaraṇa kāraka	-ରେ, -ଠାରେ -re, -ṭhāre	-ମାନଙ୍କରେ, -ମାନଙ୍କଠାରେ -mānankare, -mānankaṭhāre
Instrumental	କରଣକାରକ karaṇakāraka	-ରେ, -ଦ୍ୱାରା, -ଦେଇ -re, -dwārā, -dera	-ମାନଙ୍କରେ, -ମାନଙ୍କଦ୍ୱାରା -mānankare, -mānankadwārā
Ablative	ଅପାଦାନ କାରକ apādāna kāraka	-ରୁ, -ଠାରୁ -ru, -ṭhāru	-ମାନଙ୍କରୁ, -ମାନଙ୍କଠାରୁ -mānankaru, -mānankaṭhāru
Vocative	ସମ୍ବୋଧକ କାରକ sambodhaka kāraka	ହେ, ରେ, ହୋ he, re, ho

For Vocative case: Due to lack of synthetic inflectional morphemes, a vocative particle is used.

Pronouns

Pronouns are classified both notionally and morphologically.

Personal pronouns are of two types:

Direct case- used for Nominative case
Oblique case- used with case inflections (Accusative, Instrumental, Dative, Ablative, Genitive, Locative)

Personal Pronouns
Person	Case	Pronoun	Singular	Pronoun	Plural
1st	Direct	I	ମୁଁ	We	ଆମେ ଆମେମାନେ
1st	Oblique	Me, My, Mine	ମୋ-	Us, Our, Ours	ଆମ- ଆମମାନଙ୍କ-
2nd	Direct	You	ତୁ (informal) ତୁମେ (formal) ଆପଣ (honorific)	You	ତୁମେମାନେ ଆପଣମାନେ (honorific)
2nd	Oblique	You, Your, Yours	ତୋ- (informal) ତୁମ- (formal) ଆପଣଙ୍କ- (honorific)	You, Your, Yours	ତୁମମାନଙ୍କ- ଆପଣମାନଙ୍କ- (honorific)
3rd (distal)	Direct	He/She	ସେ	They	ସେମାନେ
3rd (distal)	Oblique	Him/Her, His/Hers	ତା- (informal) ତାଙ୍କ- (formal)	Them/Their/Theirs	ସେମାନଙ୍କ-

Adjectives

Adjectives
Adjective type	Eg.	Meaning
adjective	ଭଲ ପୁଅ	good boy
adjective	ନାଲି ଫୁଲ	red flower
adjective(numeral)-specifier	ଦଶଟି ଫୁଲ	ten flowers
	ପାଞ୍ଚଟା ଗାଁ	five villages
	ଜଣେ ଛାତ୍ର	a student
	ଦଶ ଜଣ ଶିକ୍ଷକ	ten teachers
adjective(numeral)-quantity/measure	ପାଞ୍ଚ କିଲୋ ପରିବା	5 kg vegetables
adjective(numeral)-quantity/measure	ଦଶ ଲିଟର ତେଲ	10 ltr oil
adjective adjective	ଅତି ବଡ଼ ଘର	very big house
adjective adjective	ଭାରି ସୁନ୍ଦର ପିଲା	very beautiful child
adverb adjective	ଧୀର ମିଠା କଥା	soft sweet talk
compound adverb	କାନ୍ଦ କାନ୍ଦ ମୁଁହ	crying face
compound adverb	ହସ ହସ ଭାବ	smiling appearance
adverb verbal noun	ଧୀର ଚାଲି	slow walking
adverb verbal noun	ଚଞ୍ଚଳ ଖିଆ	quick eating

Derived Adjectives
Type	Adjective type	Noun/Verb	Eg.	Meaning
Suffix	noun-ā	ରୋଗ	ରୋଗା ଲୋକ	ill person
	noun-ā	ଦକ୍ଷିଣ	ଦକ୍ଷିଣା ପବନ	southern wind
	verb-ā	ଶୁଣ	ଶୁଣା କଥା	heard matter
	verb-ā	ଜାଣ	ଜଣା ଖବର	known news
	noun verb-ā	ଚାଉଳ, ଧୋ	ଚାଉଳ ଧୁଆ ପାଣି	rice-washed water
	noun verb-ā	ଲୁଗା, କାଚ୍	ଲୁଗା କଚା ସାବୁନ୍	cloth washing soap
	verb-i	ଗୁଣ	ଗୁଣି ଲେକ	good person
	verb-i	ଦାମ୍	ଦାମି ଜିନିଷ	costly thing

Postpositions

Postpositions used with Inflections: The postpositions which occur with nominal forms and function as both morphological and syntactic markers. They are added to the nominal stems formed by noun-genitive case markers.

Postpositions used with Inflections
Postpositions	Meaning	Postpositions	Meaning
ଉପରେ	up	ପରି	like
ମଧ୍ୟରେ	between	ଭଳି	like
ଭିତରେ	in	ପ୍ରତି	per head
ତଳେ	under	ଜଗୁଁ	because of
ପାଖରେ	near	ହେତୁ	because of
ବଦଳରେ	instead of	ନେଇ	by
ନିକଟରେ	near	ଦ୍ଵାରା	by
ଠାରୁ	from	ଦ୍ୱାରା	by
ସକାସେ	for	ପାଇଁ	by
ନିମନ୍ତେ	for	ଠାରେ	at
ପରିବର୍ତ୍ତେ	instead of	ରୁପେ	like

Indeclinable Postpositions: Those which do not have inflected suffixes, function as indeclinables.

Postpositions as Indeclinables
Postpositions	Meaning	Postpositions	Meaning
ଭଳି	like	ପରି	like
ହେଲେ	then	ସବୁ	all
ସହିତ	with	ସଙ୍ଗେ	with
ନିମନ୍ତେ	for	ସାଥେ	with
ମଧ୍ୟ	also	ଅନ୍ତେ	then
ସହ	with	ଜାକ	all

Classifiers

When a noun is enumerated, it takes a group of morphemes called classifiers.

When the number denotes 'one', then the structure of the phrase:

classifier-numeral noun

Eg- ଜଣେ ପିଲା – one child

When the numeral is more than 'one', then the structure is:

numeral classifier noun

Eg- ଦୁଇ ଜଣ ପିଲା – two children

Classifiers have two types-

qualifiers- used for count nouns.

Nouns which occur with ଗୋଟା,ଗୋଟି or its variant -ଟା,-ଟି

Eg- ଗୋଟିଏ ପିଲା – one child, ଦୁଇଟି ପିଲା -two children
ଗୋଟିଏ ଘର – one house, ଦୁଇଟି ଘର – two houses

Other types of count nouns of human and non human forms include-

ଜଣେ ପିଲା – one child

ଖଣ୍ଡେ ଲୁଗା – one piece of cloth

ଗୋଛାଏ କାଠ – one bundle of wood

ଫାଳେ କାଠ – a half piece of wood

ଗଦାଏ କାଠ – one heap of wood

କିଲେ କାଠ – one kilo of wood

ଫୁଟେ କାଠ – one foot of wood

ବସ୍ତାଏ କାଠ – one sack of wood

quantifiers- used for mass nouns

Nouns which occur with ମେଞ୍ଚା

Eg- ମେଞ୍ଚାଏ କାଦୁଅ – a lump of mud

References

^ Mahapatra, B.P. (2002). Linguistic Survey of India: Orissa (PDF). Kolkata, India: Language Division, Office of the Registrar General. p. 36. Retrieved 5 August 2020.
^ Grierson, G.A. (1903–28). Linguistic Survey of India. India: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing. p. 367. Retrieved 31 October 2020.

Bibliography

Neukom, Lukas; Patnaik, Manideepa (2003). A grammar of Oriya (PDF). Zürich: Universität Zürich. ISBN 3-9521010-9-5. OCLC 53903369.
Cardona, George; Jain, Dhanesh, eds. (2003), The Indo-Aryan Languages, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77294-5
Masica, Colin (1991), The Indo-Aryan Languages, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-29944-2
John Beames, A comparative grammar of the modern Aryan languages of India: to wit, Hindi, Panjabi, Sindhi, Gujarati, Marathi, Oriya, and Bangali. Londinii: Trübner, 1872–1879. 3 vols.
Hallam, Ebenezer (1874), Oriya Grammar for English Students, Baptist Mission Press
Sutton, Amos (1831), An Introductory Grammar of the Oriya Language, Baptist Mission Press, ISBN 9785878188555
Mahapatra, B.P. (2007), A synchronic grammar of Oriya : standard spoken and written, Central Institute of Indian Languages, Mysore, OCLC 269283851