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Sultanate of Ifat

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This article is about the sultanate in the Horn of Africa. For the historic region, see Ifat (historical region).

The Sultanate of Ifat, known as Wafāt or Awfāt in Arabic texts,[3] or the Kingdom of Zeila[4] was a medieval Sunni Muslim state in the eastern regions of the Horn of Africa between the late 13th century and early 15th century.[5][6][7] It was formed in present-day Ethiopia around eastern Shewa in Ifat.[8][9][10] Led by the Walashma dynasty, the polity stretched from Zequalla to the port city of Zeila.[11] The kingdom ruled over parts of what are now Ethiopia, Djibouti, Somaliland, Somalia.

Sultanate of Ifat
سلطنة أوفات (Arabic)
1275–1403
The Ifat Sultanate in the 14th century.
The Ifat Sultanate in the 14th century.
Capital
Official languagesArabic
Common languages
Religion
GovernmentMonarchy
Sultan 
• 1185–1228 (first)
Umar Walasma
• 1376–1403 (last)
Sa'ad ad-Din II
History 
• Established
1275
• Disestablished
1403
Area
• Total
120,000 km2 (46,000 sq mi)
CurrencyDinar and Dirham[2]
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Makhzumi dynasty
Adal Sultanate
Today part of

Location

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The earliest account of Ifat Sultanate comes from Ibn Sa'id al-Maghribi. He says that the region is called Jabarta and its capital is called Wafāt. Its population, who are Muslim, are ethnically mixed. The city sat upon an elevated place in a valley next to a river. He calculates the astronomical position of the city being 8 latitude and 57 longitude according to Arab computation, which is located on the eastern edge of Shewa.[12] Ifat Sultanate was also alternatively known as the state of Zeila.[13]

According to Ibn Fadlallah al-Umari, Ifat was a state close to the Red Sea coast, 15 days by 20 days "normal traveling time". The state had a river (Awash River), was well peopled and had an army of 20,000 soldiers and 15,000 horsemen. Al Umari mentioned seven cities in Ifat: Biqulzar, Kwelgora, Shimi, Shewa, Adal, Jamme and Laboo.[14] While reporting that its center was "a place called Walalah, probably the modern Wäläle south of Šäno in the Ěnkwoy valley, about 50 miles ENE of Addis Ababa", G.W.B. Huntingford "provisionally" estimated its southern and eastern boundaries were along the Awash River, the western frontier a line drawn between Medra Kabd towards the Jamma river east of Debre Libanos (which it shared with Damot), and the northern boundary along the Adabay and Mofar rivers.[15] The al-Umari territorial account of Ifat Sultanate implies a size of 300 kilometers by 400 kilometers, which may be an exaggeration, according to Richard Pankhurst.[16]

According to Taddesse Tamrat, Ifat's borders included Fatagar, Dawaro and Bale. The port of Zeila provided an entry point for trade and served as the most important entry point for Islam into Ethiopian lands. Ifat rulers controlled Zeila, and it was an important commercial and religious base for them.[17]

It was the northernmost of several Muslim states in the Horn of Africa, acting as a buffer between Christian kingdom and the Muslim states along the coastal regions.[5] Five Ifat cities in eastern Shewa; Asbäri, Nora, Mäsal, Rassa Guba, and Beri-Ifat now mostly in ruins dating back to the fourteenth century have been located.[18][19] The local Argobba people credited Arabs for building these towns.[20] The dwellings resemble Argobba or Harari historical building designs.[21]

Founding of Ifat

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Main article: Walashma dynasty

Islam was introduced to the Horn region early on from the Arabian Peninsula, shortly after the hijra.[22][23] Zeila's two-mihrab mosque Masjid al-Qiblatayn dates to about the 7th century, and is one of the oldest mosques in Africa.[24] In the late 9th century, Al-Yaqubi wrote that Muslims were living along the northern Somali seaboard.[25][26] This claim, however, has been called suprious and more complicated by contemporary Somali historians, who claim Muslim emmigration to Zeila unlikely, as Dr. Baadiyow reminds us that “Zayla, the center of the closest Somali urban territory [to Axum ], is estimated to be more than 1000 km by land and even further by sea.”[27][28][29][30][31]

The Walashma dynasty are regarded by scholars as the founders of the Ifat Sultanate.[1][32][33] According to the Egyptian historian Al-Maqrizi, the ruling class of the Ifat Sultanate were Arabs from the Hejaz, while the population mostly consisted of Muslims.[34]

Ifat first emerged when Umar ibn Dunya-huz, later to be known as Sultan Umar Walasma, carved out his own kingdom and conquered the Sultanate of Shewa located in northern Hararghe.[35] In 1288 Sultan Wali Asma successfully imposed his rule on Hubat, Zeila and other Muslim states in the region.[34] Taddesse Tamrat explains Sultan Walashma's military acts as an effort to consolidate the Muslim territories in the Horn of Africa in much the same way as Emperor Yekuno Amlak was attempting to consolidate the Christian territories in the highlands during the same period.[36]

History

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According to the Arab historian Maqrizi, known for his pro-Islamic version of history written around 1435, Sultan Umar Walasma was the first ruler of Ifat.[37] Umar died around 1275, stated Maqrizi, and was succeeded by "four or five sons" with each ruling a short period.[38] Finally, Sabr ad-Din I came to power and he ruled Ifat till the turn of the century. He was succeeded by Sultan Ali, according to Maqrizi, who was the first ruler to engage with a warfare against the Abyssinia.[39] Sultan Ali, however soon submitted back to Ethiopian rule, because according to Maqrizi he lacked popular support. This allowed Emperor Yagbe'u Seyon to mount a campaign further west along the coast, near the vicinity of Zeila.[38]

Before the establishment of Ifat eastern Ethiopia was ruled by the Gidaya, Dawaro, Sawans, Bali, and Fatagar.[40] These states were incorporated into the Ifat Sultanate however they managed to maintain a source of independence after Ifat collapsed. When Ifat was abolished by the Ethiopian Empire these states were also invaded, however Fatagar still managed to stay under the control of Ifat.[41]

Conflict with Abyssinia

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In 1320 a conflict between the Christian monarch and Muslim Ifat leaders began. The conflict was precipitated by Al-Nasir Muhammad of Egypt.[42] The Mamluk ruler Al-Nasir Muhammad was persecuting Christian Copts and destroying Coptic churches. The Ethiopian Emperor Amda Seyon I sent an envoy with a warning to the Mamluk ruler that if he did not stop the persecution of Christians in Egypt, he would retaliate against Muslims under his rule and would starve the peoples of Egypt by diverting the course of the Nile.[38][43] According to Pankhurst, of the two threats, the diversion of Nile was an idle threat and the Egyptian sultan dismissed it because he likely realized this to be so. The fear that the Ethiopians might tamper with the Nile, states Pankhurst, was nevertheless to remain with Egyptians for many centuries.[38]

As a result of the threats and the dispute between Amda Seyon and Al Nasr, the Sultan of Ifat, Haqq ad-Din I responded,[38] initiating a definite war of aggression.[43] He invaded the Christian Abyssinian territory in the Amhara kingdom, burnt churches and forced apostasy among Christians.[43] He also seized and imprisoned the envoy sent by the Emperor on his way back from Cairo. Haqq ad-Din tried to convert the envoy, killing him when this failed.[43] In response, the irate Emperor raided the inhabitants of all the land of Shewa, much of it inhabited by Muslims at that time, and other districts of Ifat Sultanate.[44] The historical records of that time, depending on which side wrote the history, indicate a series of defeat, destruction and burning of towns of the opposite side.[38]

According to the Christian chronicles, the son of the Sultan Haqq ad-Din Dadader Haqq ad-Din who was the leader of the Midra Zega and Menz people who were then Muslims, fought the emperor in the battle of Marra Biete in an area somewhere south of Marra Biete in modern North Shewa. Dadader forces were able to surround the emperor Amda Seyon I, who nevertheless succeeded in defeating them and killed the commander Dadader in the battle .[44][38][43]

Ifat rebellion

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Sabr ad-Din's rebellion was not an attempt to achieve independence, but to become emperor of a Muslim Ethiopia. Amda Seyon's royal chronicle states that Sabr ad-Din proclaimed:

"I wish to be King of all Ethiopia; I will rule the Christians according to their law and I will destroy their churches...I will nominate governors in all the provinces of Ethiopia, as does the King of Zion(Ethiopia)...I will transform the churches into mosques. I will subjugate and convert the King of the Christians to my religion, I will make him a provincial governor, and if he refuses to be converted I will hand him over to one of the shepherds, called Warjeke [i.e. Warjih], that he may be made a keeper of camels. As for the Queen Jan Mangesha, his wife, I will employ her to grind corn. I will make my residence at Marade [i.e. Tegulet], the capital of his kingdom.[45]

In fact, after his first incursion, Sabr ad-Din appointed governors for nearby and neighboring provinces such as Fatagar and Alamalé, as well as far-off provinces in the north like Damot, Amhara, Angot, Inderta, Begemder, and Gojjam. He also threatened to plant khat at the capital, a stimulant used by Muslims but forbidden to Ethiopian Orthodox Christians.[46]

Sabr ad-Din's rebellion in early 1332, with its religious support and ambitious goals, was therefore seen as a jihad rather than an attempt at independence, and it was consequently immediately joined by the nearby Muslim province of Dewaro (the first known mention of the province), under the governor Haydera, and the western province of Hadiya under the vassal local ruler Ameno. Sabr ad-Din divided his troops into three parts, sending a division north-westwards to attack Amhara, one northwards to attack Angot, and another, under his personal command, westward to take Shewa.[47]

Amda Seyon subsequently mobilized his soldiers to meet the threat, endowing them with gifts of gold, silver, and lavish clothing – so much so that the chronicler explains that "in his reign gold and silver abounded like stones and fine clothes were as common as the leaves of the trees or the grass in the fields."[48] Despite the extravagance he bestowed on his men, many chose not to fight due to Ifat's inhospitable mountainous and arid terrain and the complete absence of roads. Nevertheless, they advanced on 24 Yakatit, and an attachment was able to find the rebellious governor and put him to flight. Once the remainder of Amda Seyon's army arrived, they destroyed the capital of Ifat and killed many soldiers. But Sabr ad-Din once again escaped. The Ethiopian forces then grouped together for a final attack, destroying one of his camps, killing many and taking the rest as slaves as well as looting it of its gold, silver, and its "fine clothes and jewels without number."[47]

Sabr ad-Din subsequently sued for peace, appealing to Queen Jan Mengesha, who refused his peace offer and expressed Amda Seyon's determination not to return to his capital until he had searched Sabr ad-Din out. Upon hearing this, Sabr ad-Din realized that his rebellion futile and surrendered himself to Amda Seyon's camp.[47] Amda Seyon's courtiers demanded that Sabr ad-Din be executed, but he instead granted him relative clemency and had the rebellious governor imprisoned. Amda Seyon then appointed the governor's brother, Jamal ad-Din I, as his successor in Ifat. Just as the Ifat rebellion had been quelled, however, the neighboring states of Adal and Mora, just north of Ifat rose against the Emperor. Amda Seyon soon also put down this rebellion.[49]

After the era of Amda Seyon I

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The Muslim rulers of Ifat continued their campaign against the Christian Emperor. His son, Emperor Sayfa Arad appointed Ahmad, also known as Harb Arad ibn Ali as the sultan of Ifat, and put Ali's father and relatives in prison.[50] Sayfa Arad was close to Ahmad and supported his rule, however, Ahmad was killed in an Ifat uprising. Ahmad's son Haqq ad-Din II then came to power in Ifat. Internal ruling family struggle in Ifat expelled grandfather Ali's son named Mola Asfah who gathered forces and attacked Ahmad's son. A series of battles affirmed Sultan Haqq ad-Din II position of power.[50] In the fourteenth century Haqq ad-Din II transferred Ifat's capital to the Harar plateau thus he is regarded by some to be the true founder of the Adal Sultanate.[51] The new Sultan moved away from previous capital of Ifat, to the city of Zeila.[52] From there, he ceaselessly fought with the Emperor, in over twenty battles through 1370, according to Maqrizi's chronicle written in 1435. The Ifat Sultan Haqq ad-Din II died in a battle in 1376.[50]

According to historian Mordechai Abir, the continued warfare between Ifat Sultanate and the Ethiopian Emperor was a part of the larger geopolitical conflict, where Egypt had arrested Coptic Church's Patriarch Marcos in 1352. This arrest led to retaliatory arrest and imprisonment of all Egyptian merchants in Ethiopia. In 1361, the Egyptian Sultan al-Malik al-Salih released the Patriarch and then sought amicable relations with Ethiopian Emperor. The actions of the Ifat Sultanate and Muslim kingdoms in the Horn of Africa, states Abir, were linked to the Muslim-Christian conflicts between Egypt and Ethiopia.[53]

The end of Ifat Sultanate

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In 1376, Sultan Sa'ad ad-Din Abdul Muhammad, also called Sa'ad ad-Din II, succeeded his brother and came to power, who continued to attack the Abyssinian Christian army. He attacked regional chiefs such as at Zalan and Hadeya, who supported the Emperor.[54] According to Mordechai Abir, Sa'ad ad-Din II raids against the Ethiopian empire were largely hit-and-run type, which hardened the resolve of the Christian ruler to end the Muslim rule in their east.[53] In the early 15th century, the Ethiopian Emperor who was likely Dawit I collected a large army to respond.[54] He branded the Muslims of the surrounding area "enemies of the Lord", and invaded Ifat. After much war, Ifat's troops were defeated in 1403 on the Harar plateau, Sultan Sa'ad ad-Din subsequently fled to Zelia where Ethiopian soldiers pursued him.[54][55][56] Al-Maqrizi narrates:

the Amhara pursued Sa'd al-Din as far as the peninsula of Zeila, in the ocean, where he took refuge. The Amhara besieged him there, and deprived him of water; at last one of the impious showed them a way by which they could reach him. When they came upon him a battle ensued; and after three days the water failed. Sa'd al Din was wounded in the forehead and fell to the ground, whereupon they pierced him with their swords. But he died happily, falling in God's cause.[57]

After Sa'ad ad-Din's death “the strength of the Muslims was abated”, as Marqrizi states, and then the Amhara settled in the country “and from the ravaged mosques and they made churches”. The followers of Islam were said to have been harassed for over twenty years.[58]

The sources disagree on which Ethiopian Emperor conducted this campaign. According to the medieval historian al-Makrizi, Emperor Dawit I in 1403 pursued the Sultan of Adal, Sa'ad ad-Din II, to Zeila, where he killed the Sultan and sacked the city of Zeila. However, another contemporary source dates the death of Sa'ad ad-Din II to 1410, and credits Emperor Yeshaq with the slaying.[59]

According to Harari tradition the Argobba fled Ifat and settled around Harar in the Aw Abdal lowlands during their conflict with Abyssinia in the fifteenth century, a gate was thus named after them called the gate of Argobba.[60] Adal Sultanate with its capital of Harar emerged in the southeastern areas as the leading Muslim principality in latter part of the 15th century.[61] Several small territories continued to be ruled by different Walasma groups up to the eighteenth century.[62] By eighteenth century several Christian dynasties named Yifat and Menz, which were the province names of Ifat sultanate, were established.[63] Presently, its name is preserved in the Ethiopian district of Yifat, situated in North Shewa of the Amhara region.

Sultans of Ifat

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Main article: Walashma dynasty

According to fourteenth century historian Al Umari, the ruler of Ifat donned headbands made of silk.[64]

Ruler Name Reign Note
1 Sulṭān Umar Ibn Dunyā-ḥawz[65] 1197-1276 Founder of the Walashma dynasty, his nickname was ʿAdūnyo or Wilinwīli. He started a military campaign to conquer the Sultanate of Shewa. Yusuf al-Kowneyn is his 5th ancestor.
2 Sulṭān Ali "Baziwi" Naḥwi ʿUmar 1275–1299 Son of ʿUmar DunyaHuz, he led many successful campaigns the most notable of which being the Conquest of the Shewa and burning of their capital marking the end of the Makhzumi dynasty
3 Sulṭān ḤaqqudDīn ʿUmar 13??–13?? Son of ʿUmar DunyaHuz
4 Sulṭān Ḥusein ʿUmar 13??–13?? Son of ʿUmar DunyaHuz
5 Sulṭān NasradDīn ʿUmar 13??–13?? Son of ʿUmar DunyaHuz
6 Sulṭān Mansur ʿAli 13??–13?? Son of ʿAli "Baziwi" ʿUmar
7 Sulṭān JamaladDīn ʿAli 13??–13?? Son of ʿAli "Baziwi" ʿUmar
8 Sulṭān Abūd JamaladDīn 13??–13?? Son of JamaladDīn ʿAli
9 Sulṭān Zubēr Abūd 13??–13?? Son of Abūd JamaladDīn
10 Māti Layla Abūd 13??–13?? Daughter of Abūd JamaladDīn
11 Sulṭān ḤaqqudDīn Naḥwi 13??–1328 Son of Naḥwi Mansur, grandson of Mansur ʿUmar
12 Sulṭān SabiradDīn Maḥamed "Waqōyi" Naḥwi 1328–1332 Son of Naḥwi Mansur, defeated by Emperor Amde Seyon of Abyssinia, who replaced him with his brother JamaladDīn as a vassal.
13 Sulṭān JamaladDīn Naḥwi 1332–13?? Son of Naḥwi Mansur, vassal king under Amde Seyon
14 Sulṭān NasradDīn Naḥwi 13??–13?? Son of Naḥwi Mansur, vassal king under Amde Seyon
15 Sulṭān "Qāt" ʿAli SabiradDīn Maḥamed 13??–13?? Son of SabiradDīn Maḥamed Naḥwi, rebelled against Emperor Newaya Krestos after the death of Amde Seyon, but the rebellion failed and he was replaced with his brother Aḥmed
16 Sulṭān Aḥmed "Harbi Arʿēd" ʿAli 13??–13?? Son of ʿAli SabiradDīn Maḥamed, accepted the role of vassal and did not continue to rebel against Newaya Krestos, and is subsequently regarded very poorly by Muslim historians
17 Sulṭān Ḥaqquddīn Aḥmed 13??–1376 Son of Aḥmed ʿAli
18 Sulṭān SaʿadadDīn Aḥmed 1376–1403 Son of Aḥmed ʿAli, killed in the Abyssinian invasion of Ifat under Yeshaq I

Military

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According to Mohammed Hassen Ifat's infantry consisted of the Argobba people.[66]

People

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Ifat's inhabitants, according to Nehemia Levtzion Randall Pouwels, and Ulrich Brakumper include nomadic groups such as Somalis, Afars and Warjih people whom were already Muslims by the thirteenth century, the Hararis, Argobbas, the extinct Doba and Harla.[67][68][69][70] Arabic was Lingua franca but the inhabitants of Ifat spoke Cushitic and Ethio-Semitic languages.[71][72]

Ifat or Yifat, once the easternmost district of Shewa Sultanate, is located in a strategic position between the central highlands and the sea, and includes diverse population.[68][73] Its predecessor state Shewa Sultanate is believed to be the first inland Muslim state and by the time it was incorporated into Ifat much of the inhabitants of Shewa land were Muslims.[73][38] According to the chronicle of Shewa Sultanate converting the inhabitants in the area begun in 1108, and the first to convert were the Gbbah people whom Trimingham suggested them being the ancestors of Argobbas.[72] A few years later after the conversion of the Gbbah people, the chronicle of Shewa sultanate mentions that in 1128 the Amhara fled from the land of Werjih. The Werjih were a pastoral people, and in the fourteenth century they occupied the Awash Valley east of Shewan Plateau.[74]

By the mid-fourteenth century, Islam expanded in the region and the inhabitants north of Awash river were the Muslim people of Zaber and Midra Zega (located south of modern Merhabete); the Gabal (or Warjeh people today called Tigri Worji); and much of the inhabitants of Ankober, were under the Sultanate of Ifat.[75][76][77] Tegulat, previously the capital of Shewa Sultanate, is situated on a mountain 24 km north of Debre Berhan and was known by Muslims as Mar'ade.[78][79][80] The chronicle of Amda Tsion even mentions Khat being widely consumed by Muslims in the city of Marade.[81] Tegulat, later became the seat of Emperor Amde Tsion, thereby, making it the capital of the empire. The emperor then appointed the descendants of Walasmas as the king of all the Muslim lands.[82]

Ifat or Yifat, once the easternmost district of Shewa Sultanate, is located in a strategic position between the central highlands and the sea, and includes diverse population.[68][73] Its predecessor state Shewa Sultanate is believed to be the first inland Muslim state and by the time it was incorporated into Ifat much of the inhabitants of Shewa land were Muslims.[73][38] According to the chronicle of Shewa Sultanate converting the inhabitants in the area begun in 1108, and the first to convert were the Gbbah people whom Trimingham suggested them being the ancestors of Argobbas.[72] A few years later after the conversion of the Gbbah people, the chronicle of Shewa sultanate mentions that in 1128 the Amhara fled from the land of Werjih. The Werjih were a pastoral people, and in the fourteenth century they occupied the Awash Valley east of Shewan Plateau.[74]

By the mid-fourteenth century, Islam expanded in the region and the inhabitants north of Awash river were the Muslim people of Zaber and Midra Zega (located south of modern Merhabete); the Gabal (or Warjeh people today called Tigri Worji); and much of the inhabitants of Ankober, were under the Sultanate of Ifat.[75][83][77] Tegulat, previously the capital of Shewa Sultanate, is situated on a mountain 24 km north of Debre Berhan and was known by Muslims as Mar'ade.[78][79][80] The chronicle of Amda Tsion even mentions Khat being widely consumed by Muslims in the city of Marade.[81] Tegulat, later became the seat of Emperor Amde Tsion, thereby, making it the capital of the empire. The emperor then appointed the descendants of Walasmas as the king of all the Muslim lands.[82]

Language

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The 19th-century Ethiopian historian Asma Giyorgis suggests that the Walashma themselves spoke Arabic.[84]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ a b Endris, Mohammed. Self-Rule And Representation In Amhara National Regional State: A Case Study On Argoba Nationality (PDF). Addis Ababa University. p. 48.
  2. ^ Zakeria, Ahmed (1991). "Harari Coins: A Preliminary Survey". Journal of Ethiopian Studies. 24. Institute of Ethiopian Studies: 23–46. JSTOR 41965992.
  3. ^ Trimingham, J. Spencer (2013) [1952]. Islam in Ethiopia. London: Routledge. p. 58. ISBN 9781136970221.
  4. ^ E. Cerulli. Islam Yesterday and Today. p. 344.
  5. ^ a b The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica (1998). Ifat: historical state. Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2017-01-16.
  6. ^ J. Gordon Melton and Martin Baumann, Religions of the World, Second Edition: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices, page 2663
  7. ^ Asafa Jalata, State Crises, Globalisation, And National Movements In North-east Africa page 3-4
  8. ^ Ullendorff, Edward (1966). "The Glorious Victories of 'Amda Ṣeyon, King of Ethiopia". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. 29 (3). Cambridge University Press: 601. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00073432. JSTOR 611476. S2CID 162414707.
  9. ^ Østebø, Terje (30 September 2011). Localising Salafism Religious Change Among Oromo Muslims in Bale, Ethiopia. BRILL. pp. 56–57. ISBN 978-9004184787.
  10. ^ Pankhurst, Richard (1997). The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century. The Red Sea Press. p. 39. ISBN 9780932415196.
  11. ^ Huntingford, G.W.B (1955). "Arabic Inscriptions in Southern Ethiopia". Antiquity. 29 (116). Cambridge University Press: 230–233. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00021955.
  12. ^ Trimmingham, John Spencer (1952). Islam in Ethiopia. Frank Cass & Company. ISBN 9780714617312.
  13. ^ Cerulli, Enrico. Islam yesterday and today. p. 344.
  14. ^ G.W.B. Huntingford, The Glorious Victories of Ameda Seyon, King of Ethiopia (Oxford: University Press, 1965), p. 20.
  15. ^ G.W.B. Huntingford, The historical geography of Ethiopia from the first century AD to 1704, (Oxford University Press: 1989), p. 76
  16. ^ Richard Pankhurst The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century - Google Books" The Red Sea Press, 1997. p. 46
  17. ^ Taddesse Tamrat, Church and State in Ethiopia (1270–1527) (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), p. 83-84.
  18. ^ Chekroun, Amélie. The Sultanates of Medieval Ethiopia. Brill. p. 77.
  19. ^ Hirsch, Bertrand (2004). "Muslim Historical Spaces in Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa: A Reassessment". Northeast African Studies. 11 (1): 34. JSTOR 41960544.
  20. ^ Fauvelle, François-Xavier. The Awfāt Sultanate, its capital and the Walasmaʿ necropolis. French Institute of Oriental Archeology.
  21. ^ Hirsch, Bertrand (2006). "Reconnaissance de trois villes musulmanes de l'époque médiévale dans l'Ifat". Annales d'Éthiopie. 27: 134.
  22. ^ Hamza Dudgeon, “The Hanafis,” in the Routledge Handbook of Islamic Ritual and Practice, ed. Oliver Leaman (New York: Routledge, 2022), 77
  23. ^ Samīra al-Zāyid, al-Jāmiʿ fī al-Sīra al-Nabawiyya, 6 vols.,1st ed. (N.P: al-Maṭbaʿa al-ʿIlmiyya, 1995), 1:415-418, 422, 461-477.
  24. ^ Briggs, Phillip (2012). Somaliland. Bradt Travel Guides. p. 7. ISBN 978-1841623719.
  25. ^ Encyclopedia Americana, Volume 25. Americana Corporation. 1965. p. 255.
  26. ^ Lewis, I.M. (1955). Peoples of the Horn of Africa: Somali, Afar and Saho. International African Institute. p. 140.
  27. ^ Abdurahman Abdullahi Baadiyow, Making Sense of Somali History, 2 vols. (London: Adonis & Abbey, 2017), 1:49-50, 55
  28. ^ Ali Abdirahman Hersi, “The Arab Factor in Somali History: The Origins and the Development of Arab Enterprise and Cultural Influences in the Somali Peninsula” (PhD diss., University of California Los Angeles, 1977), 75-79
  29. ^ Cabdulqaadir Salaad Dhoorre, Soomaaliya iyo Taariikhdeedii Hore (n.p:n.d), 63, 67
  30. ^ Jaamac Maxamed Qaalib, Taariikhda Soomalida: Xogogaalnimo u Badah (Mogadishu: Hud Hud Books, 2018), 51
  31. ^ Robrecht Deforche, “Stabilization and Common Identity: Reflections on the Islamic Courts Union and Al-Itihaad,” Bildhaan: An International Journal of Somali Studies: Vol. 13 (2014): 110
  32. ^ Tesfaye, Frehiwot (1998). Food Security And Peasants' Survival Strategy: A Study Of A Village In Northern Shewa, Ethiopia (Thesis). University of Toronto. p. 143.
  33. ^ History of Harar (PDF). p. 47.
  34. ^ a b Trimingham, John (1952). Islam in Ethiopia. Oxford University Press. p. 58.
  35. ^ Østebø, Terje (30 September 2011). Localising Salafism: Religious Change Among Oromo Muslims in Bale, Ethiopia. BRILL. p. 56. ISBN 978-9004184787.
  36. ^ Taddesse Tamrat, Church and State, p. 125
  37. ^ Richard Pankhurst The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century - Google Books" The Red Sea Press, 1997. p. 48
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  39. ^ Riraash, Mohamed Abdullahi. Effects of 16th Century Upheavals on the Horn. Djibouti: Service D'Information Djibouti. p. 251. We can attribute its success (The Walashma dynasty), longevity and influence, to the fact that the founders of the dynasty of Walasma were native of the area.
  40. ^ Mukhtar, Mohamed Haji (25 February 2003). Mukhtar Haji. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 9780810866041.
  41. ^ Loimeier, Roman (5 June 2013). Muslim society's in Africa. Indiana University Press. ISBN 9780253007971.
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  44. ^ a b Richard Pankhurst The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century - Google Books" The Red Sea Press, 1997. pp. 41
  45. ^ Pankhurst, Richard K.P. The Ethiopian Royal Chronicles. Addis Ababa: Oxford University Press, Inc., 1967, p. 15.
  46. ^ Pankhurst, Borderlands, p. 42.
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  75. ^ a b Deutsche UNESCO-Kommission Perspectives Des Études Africaines Contemporaines: Rapport Final D'un Symposium International - Google Books" 1974. p. 269.
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  77. ^ a b S. L. Seaton, Henri J. Claessen Political Anthropology: The State of the Art - Google Books" Walter de Gruyter, 1979. p. 157.
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  84. ^ Giyorgis, Asma (1999). Aṣma Giyorgis and his work: history of the Gāllā and the kingdom of Šawā. Medical verlag. p. 257. ISBN 9783515037167.
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