The Colombian War of Independence began on July 20, 1810 when the Junta de Santa Fe was formed in Santa Fe de Bogota, the capital of the Spanish colonial Viceroyalty of New Granada, to govern the territory autonomously from Spain. The event inspired similar independence movements across Latin America, and triggered an almost decade-long rebellion culminating in the founding of the Republic of Colombia, which spanned present-day Colombia, mainland Ecuador, Panama, and Venezuela, along with parts of northern Peru and northwestern Brazil.[note 2]
Although Gran Colombia would ultimately dissolve in 1831, it was for a time among the most powerful countries in the Western Hemisphere, and played an influential role in shaping the political development of other newly sovereign Latin American states. The modern nation-state of Colombia recognizes the event as its national independence day.
Political background
editSpain was ruled by a typical enlightened absolutist monarch, promoting culture and Christianity, and allowing some expression of the ideas of the Age of Enlightenment, in the country and its colonies, while at the same time maintaining strong political control. However, the Spanish colonies in the Americas were advised to trade with other countries and their colonies, such as Great Britain and British North America, and the French Empire and New France. Spain was their only source of goods and merchandise, although it was unable to fulfill the trade demands of its colonies. Furthermore, Charles III's support for the independence of the United States generated new taxes, causing unrest in Spain's colonies in the Americas, such as the Revolt of the Comuneros (New Granada) and the Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II. Another major tension was the policy of excluding Criollos, or locally born whites, from public administration.
Charles IV (reigned 1788–1808) was not very interested in exercising political power, leaving such duties to his ministers, specially the disliked Manuel Godoy. Charles IV was more interested in pursuing the arts and science and gave little importance to the American colonies.
The development that precipitated the events of July 20, 1810, was the crisis of the Spanish monarchy caused by the 1808 abdications of Charles IV and Ferdinand VII forced by Napoleon Bonaparte in favor of his brother Joseph Bonaparte. The ascension of King Joseph initially had been cheered by Spanish afrancesados (literally, "Frenchified"), usually elites and important statesmen who believed that collaboration with France would bring modernization and liberty to Spain. An example of Joseph's policies was the abolition of the Spanish Inquisition. However, the general population rejected the new king and opposition, led by the priesthood and patriots, became widespread after the French army's first examples of repression (such as the executions of May 3, 1808, in Madrid) became widely known.
Eventually an emergency government in the form of a Supreme Central Junta was formed in Spain. Most of the authorities in the Americas swore allegiance to the new Supreme Central Junta.
Memorandum of Offences
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The Supreme Central Junta ordered the election of one representative from each of the main cities of the Spanish American viceroyalties by their cabildos (municipal governments). These included primary cities in the Viceroyalty of New Spain, Viceroyalty of Perú, Viceroyalty of New Granada, and Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, and th Captaincy General of Cuba, Captaincy General of Puerto Rico, Captaincy General of Guatemala, Captaincy General of Chile, Captaincy General of Venezuela, and the Spanish East Indies.[3] In addition the cabildos were to draft instructions for the representative to present to the Supreme Central Junta.
The Memorandum of Offenses (or Memorandum of Grievances) was drafted by Camilo Torres Tenor in his capacity as legal advisor to the Santa Fe de Bogotá cabildo. In it he criticized the Spanish Monarchy's policy of excluding Criollos from high posts in the Americas and alleging their rights to govern in their homelands as "the offspring of the conquistadores". Furthermore, he proposed equality between Spanish Americans and Spaniards as the basis for maintaining the unity of the Spanish Monarchy:
- "[There are no] other means to consolidate the union between America and Spain [but] the just and competent representation of its people, without any difference among its subjects that they do not have because of their laws, their customs, their origins, and their rights. Equality! The sacred right of equality. Justice is founded upon that principle and upon granting everyone that which is his. […] [T]he true fraternal union between European Spaniards and Americans… can never exist except upon the basis of justice and equality. America and Spain are two integral and constituent parts of the Spanish Monarchy… Anyone who believes otherwise does not love his patria… Therefore, to exclude the Americans from such representation, in addition to being the greatest injustice, would arouse distrust and jealousy, and would forever alienate their desires for such a union…"[4]
Torres defended the right of the Viceroyalty of New Granada to establish a junta given the political circumstances. Although the draft expressed many of common sentiments of Criollos at the time and probably was discussed by prominent members of the capital's society, it was never adopted by the cabildo. It would be published for the first time only in 1832.[5][6]
The First Juntas
editAs the military situation in Spain deteriorated, many Spanish Americans desired to establish their own juntas, despite their formal declarations of loyalty to the Supreme Central Junta. A movement to set up a junta in neighboring Caracas in 1808 was stopped by the Captain-General with arrests of the conspirators. In the Royal Audiencia of Charcas (present day Bolivia) juntas were established in Charcas (May 25) and La Paz (July 1809).
More importantly to events in New Granada, in the neighboring Royal Audiencia of Quito—a territory under the auspices of the Viceroy of New Granada— a group of Criollos led by Juan Pío Montúfar, the second Marquis of Selva Alegre, established the autonomous junta Luz de América on August 10, swearing loyalty to Ferdinand VII, but rejecting the viceregal authorities. Viceroy Antonio José Amar y Borbón considered this a rebellious act, and fearing for similar developments in New Granada, ordered military action to put down the junta in conjunction with the Viceroy of Peru.
Formation of the Independent Junta of Santa Fé de Bogotá
editIn mid-1810 news arrived that the Supreme Central Junta had dissolved itself in favor of a regency. In response to the new political crisis, Spaniards and Criollos in the Americas established juntas that continued to swear allegiance to King Ferdinand VII.
The next incident happened in Caracas, on April 19, 1810. The mantuanos, (the rich, criollo elite of colonial Venezuela) together with military and eclessiatic authorities, declared autonomy, again swearing loyalty to Ferdinand VII, but rejecting the viceroyalty. The Cadiz Board of government decided to order the destitution of Amar y Borbon, sending a notification with the royal visitor Antonio Villavicencio, who arrived in Cartagena on May 8.[7]
On May 22 in Cartagena de Indias, the Cartagena Board of government was created with similar terms to the previous one.[8] Shortly after, similar actions against the Viceroy broke out in Santiago de Cali, Socorro and Pamplona. Finally, Bogota, the central cathedra of the Viceroyalty rebelled on July 20. The spark for this was the so-called "flower vase incident" (Spanish: El Florero de Llorente) involving Spanish businessman José González Llorente on the morning of the 20th. The Colombian patriotic tradition takes this incident as the starting point for the struggle for the Independence of Colombia.
Flower vase incident
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First, on the morning of July 20, 1810, Joaquín Camacho went to the residence of the Viceroy Antonio José Amar y Borbón, requesting response on an application for the establishment of a governing board in Bogota, the viceregal capital, in similar lines to those already established in other cities. The refusal of the Viceroy to grant the request, coupled with his arrogance, made the group of dissatisfied Criollos decide to execute their plan to provoke a revolt, which would have as trigger the loan of a vase.
Criollos Luis Rubio and Pantaleón Sanz de Santamaría then went to visit Spanish businessman José González Llorente to borrow a vase, to use it at a welcoming dinner for the visiting Royal commissioner Antonio Villavicencio, also a Criollo. As expected (and hoped), Llorente refused to lend the vase with a haughty attitude, because he would not lend any object to Criollos, and certainly not to celebrate another Criollo.
As they had planned the day before, Francisco José de Caldas now used Llorente's refusal, placing heavy emphasis on his disparaging remarks towards Criollos, to inflame the hundreds of people, who had gathered to welcome Villavicencio, against the Spaniards.[9]
This prompted a turbulent response from the people, who tried to attack Llorente. The mayor of Santa Fe de Bogota, José Miguel Pey, tried to calm the crowd attacking Llorente, while Jose Maria Carbonell encouraged more people to join in the protest. That afternoon, a Junta was formed (later called the People's Junta) with José Acevedo y Gómez as chairman, and Viceroy Amar y Borbón as president. But the crowds were angered by the decision to nominate the Viceroy as president, and the next day, July 21, the Junta ordered the resignation of Viceroy Amar y Borbón from the Junta presidency and also for his arrest and that of his officials.
Five days later, July 26, the Junta declared that its ties to the Seville Regency Council were finally cut, therefore the Junta officially declared the independence of what is now Colombia from Spanish rule and the rule of the Regency Council. Bogota would be the first city of the colony to break its ties with Spain, followed by more provincial capitals in the coming months.
Cartagena's Declaration of Independence
One of the most defining moments in the history of Colombian independence occurs in Cartagena in the year 1811. When Bogota created a junta in 1810, elite creole men in Cartagena created their own the following year after expelling the Spanish Governor Francisco De Montes. Cartagena, Colombia. On November 11, 1811, the junta comprised the document known as "Act of Independence" to justify the expulsion of the Spanish governor. The declaration, filled with enlightenment ideas such as the right of all men to vote regardless of ethnicity, was the first of its kind in Colombia and is regarded as the event that kickstarted the Latin American Independence Wars. The event is still celebrated in Cartagena as their independence week.[10]
Foolish Fatherland (1810–1815)
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The First five years of independence is known as the period of the Foolish Fatherland (la Patria Boba), which was marked by chaos, internal instability and even Civil war on the one hand, and on the other hand by armed conflicts with the area's that had remained loyal to Spain.
Each province, and even some cities, had set up its own autonomous junta in 1810, and quickly discussions arose how to work together. Two parties emerged, which were constantly at odds : the federalists and the centralists. Eventually two states were founded, the Federalist First Republic of New Granada and the Centralist Free and Independent State of Cundinamarca, that fought each other in a Civil war between 1812 and 1814. This prolonged period of instability eventually favored the Spanish reconquest in 1815.
The north and the south of present-day Colombia remained under Royalist control and several battles were fought to bring these area's under Patriot control, with limited success.
The Magdalena Campaign resulted in taking control of the Magdalena River, which connects the port city of Cartagena with the interior of Colombia, but failed to conquer the important port of Santa Marta .
Nariño's Southern Campaign (December 1813-May 1814) was initially successful, but in May 1814, Antonio Nariño suffered a crushing defeat in the Battle of Ejidos de Pasto and was taken prisoner.
And in neighbouring Venezuela, Simon Bolivar succeeded in creating the Second Republic of Venezuela (1813–1814) after his Admirable Campaign, but this Republic was destroyed in 1814 by llanero troops, which had remained loyal to Spain.
Spanish Reconquest (1815–1819)
editShortly after his restoration to the Spanish throne in December 1813, King Ferdinand VII decided to send a military force to reconquer the Spanish Empire in America, which had fallen into the hands of nationalist forces.
The military expedition of 1815, the strongest ever sent to America until then, included approximately sixty ships and 10,000 men. Colonel Pablo Morillo, a veteran of the Spanish war against France, was placed at the head of what would lead to the reconquest of the northern colonies, putting an end, after five years, to the de facto independence of Colombia .
The Siege of Cartagena de Indias (1815) initiated the reconquest of neo-Grenadian territory. After taking Cartagena, the Spanish attacked the rest of the country on three fronts (Morillo from Cartagena, Sebastián de la Calzada from Venezuela, and Juan de Sámano, the future viceroy of New Granada, from Pasto), which ended with the defeat of the Patriots after the Battle of Cuchilla del Tambo in June 1816. In view of the advance of the expeditionary force, internal disputes between the Republicans diminished, but remained a major obstacle, despite an attempt by the government of the United Provinces to resolve them. No mutual aid between provinces, although essential, was sent.
The reconquest completed, a campaign of terror began during which many Colombian patriots were executed for treason. Others, like Francisco de Paula Santander, retreated to the eastern plains, near the border with Venezuela, to try to reorganize political and military forces to face the new adversary.
Liberation of New Granada (1819–1824)
editIn May 1819, Simon Bolivar and his Venezuelan army crossed the Cordillera Oriental during the rainy season, and took the Spanish by surprise when his emerged in Colombia from the mountains on 5 July. In a series of battles the Republican army cleared its way to Bogotá. First at the Battle of Vargas Swamp on 25 July, Bolívar intercepted a Royalist force attempting to reinforce the poorly defended capital. On 7 August 1819, he gained a decisive victory at the Battle of Boyacá, where the bulk of the Royalist army surrendered to Bolívar.
On receiving the news of the defeat, viceroy Juan de Sámano and the rest of Royalist government fled Santafé de Bogotá to Cartagena de Indias. In the afternoon of 10 August Bolívar's army entered Bogotá without any Royalist resistance.
On November 25th, 1820, General Bolivar would sign a treaty. The next day, November 26th, General Morillo of Spain would follow suit in ratifying the treaty. Notably, this occurred prior to the Spanish Monarch's recognition of New Granada's independence, which indicated that the signing did not mark the end to the movement.[11]
Cartagena was taken in 1821 along with the entire Caribbean coast, while the Southern provinces and present-day Ecuador were liberated from the Spanish in 1822–24.
Phases of the Colombian War of Independence
edit| Phase | Dates | Combatants | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Start | End | Patriots | Royalists | |
| Early New Granada Phase | 1810 | 1813 | Centralists:.png){kind=small} Supreme Governing Junta of New Granada (until 1811) Free and Independent State of Cundinamarca (from 1811)Federalists: .svg){kind=small} United Provinces of New Granada (from 1811): Free and Independent State of Antioquia Free and Independent State of Cartagena.svg){kind=small} Province of Casanare Province of Chocó Province of Mariquita Province of Neiva Province of New Pamplona Province of Socorro Province of Tunja Confederate Cities of Valle del Cauca
|
Napoleonic supporters: Napoleonic Kingdom of SpainBourbon supporters: .svg){kind=small} Viceroyalty of New Granada (until 1812, ceased to exist) Province of Santa Marta (separate from New Granada since 1812) Province of Popayán (separate from New Granada since 1812) Province of Riohacha (separate from New Granada since 1812) Province of Panamá (separate from New Granada since 1812)
|
| Civil War in New Granada | 1813 | 1814 | Centralists: Free and Independent State of Cundinamarca Federalists: United Provinces of New Granada
|
Bourbon Kingdom of Spain:
|
| Spanish Reconquest of New Granada | 1815 | 1819 | United Provinces of New Granada
|
Bourbon Kingdom of Spain:
|
| Liberation Campaign (Campaña Libertadora) | 1819 | 1819 | .svg){kind=small} Republic of Colombia
|
Bourbon Kingdom of Spain:
|
| Late New Granada Phase | 1819 | 1821 | Republic of Colombia
|
Bourbon Kingdom of Spain:
|
| Southern Phase | 1822 | 1825 | Republic of Colombia
|
Bourbon Kingdom of Spain:
|
| Peruvian Campaigns | 1825 | 1826 | Republic of Colombia
|
Bourbon Kingdom of Spain:
|
See also
editNotes
edit- ^ Of the 400,000 deaths, 250,000 in Venezuela, 100,000 in Colombia, and 50,000 in Ecuador. The population of the territory of Gran Colombia decreased from 2,900,000 in 1810 to 2,500,000 in 1820.
- ^ At the time, the state was known as Colombia; the term Gran Colombia is used historiographically to distinguish it from the current Republic of Colombia, which is also the official name of the former state.
References
edit- ^ Nineteenth Century Death Tolls
- ^ Silvio Arturo Zavala (1971). Revista de historia de América. Numbers 69-70. Mexico City: Pan American Institute of Geography and History, p. 303. “Para el primero, de 1400000 habs. que la futura Colombia tendría en 1809 (entre ellos 78000 negros esclavos), (...) mortaldad que él mismo señala a tal guerra (unos 400 000 muertos para la Gran Colombia, entre ellos, 250 000 venezolanos).”
- ^ Royal Order of the Central Junta of January 22, 1809, defined the overseas kingdoms as "the viceroyalties of New Spain, Perú, New Granada, and Río de la Plata, and the independent captaincies general of the island of Cuba, Puerto Rico, Captaincy General of Guatemala, Captaincy General of Chile, Captaincy General of Venezuela, and the Philippines." The Royal Audiencia of Quito and Royal Audiencia of Charcas (Upper Peru) were considered by this decree to be parts of the Viceroyalties of New Granada and Peru, respectively.
- ^ Rodríguez O, Jaime E. (1998). the Independence of Spanish America. New York: Cambridge University. pp. 70–71. ISBN 0-521-62673-0.
- ^ Proceso histórico del 20 de Julio de 1810 – Documentos. Publicaciones conmemorativas del Sesquicentenario de la Independencia Nacional. Bogotá: Banco de la República. 1960. Archived from the original on January 6, 2010. Retrieved September 12, 2009.
- ^ Bushnell, David (1993). The Making of Modern Colombia: A Nation in Spite of Itself. Berkeley: University of California. p. 35. ISBN 0-520-08289-3.
- ^ Lynch, John (2006). Simón Bolívar. A Life, New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-11062-6.
- ^ Regarding the anniversary of July 20, 1810, it is important to bring up relevant opinions and judgment of its historical character which, after all is said and done, are being dogmatically consecrated by "law" or "decree." In an unpublished letter to the Mayor of Coromoro, dated in San Gil on January 13, 1841, General Tomás Cipriano de Mosquera answered an invitation to celebrate July 20 by stating: “Mr. Municipal Chief: To answer your kind letter, I must tell you, that I have never recognized as a magistrate, as a public or private man the national anniversary or revolutionary event which took place in Bogotá on July 20, 1810. If the first pronouncement made in the ancient New Kingdom of Granada has to be celebrated as a memorable anniversary, it corresponds to the one which occurred in Quito in 1809. But if we limit ourselves to what is the territory of Colombia today, the deposition of the Governor of Cartagena, Brigadier Montes, and the establishment of a provisional government in that city on May 22, 1810, which had great political influence in the entire viceroyalty—and was followed by Pamplona on July 4, 1821 and by Socorro on July 10, 1830—should be celebrated. The Legislature of the State of Cartagena was the first one with the character of public representation and officially proclaimed the independence from Spain on November 11, 1811. Mr. Municipal Chief, the public men who still live and are among the founders of the Republic must rectify the facts which we have witnessed so that history cannot be adulterated. Thus, I will conclude manifesting that I will not contribute to celebrate a holiday which does not commemorate the main event of our political generation or our independence. T. C. de Mosquera."[citation needed]
- ^ Colombia Mania
- ^ "Un Once de Noviembre - Cartagena's Declaration of Independence • Cartagena Explorer". November 9, 2020. Retrieved April 10, 2024.
- ^ Ducoudray Holstein, H.L.V. (1829). Memoirs of Simon Bolivar, President Liberator of the Republic of Colombia, and of His Principal Generals; Secret History of the Revolution and the Events Which Preceded It, from 1807 to the Present Time. Boston: S.G. Goodrich. pp. 274–275.
External links
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Media related to Colombian Declaration of Independence at Wikimedia Commons
