A true toad is any member of the family Bufonidae, in the order Anura (frogs and toads). This is the only family of anurans in which all members are known as toads, although some may be called frogs (such as harlequin frogs). The bufonids now comprise more than 35 genera, Bufo being the best known.
| True toads | |
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_-_cane_toad_(4562925062).jpg)
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| Cane toad (R. marina) | |
Scientific classification 
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| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Amphibia |
| Order: | Anura |
| Superfamily: | Hyloidea |
| Family: | Bufonidae Gray, 1825 |
| Genera | |
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Over 35 see text
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| Native distribution of Bufonidae (in black) | |
History
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Bufonidae is thought to have originated in South America. Some studies date the origin of the group to after the breakup of Gondwana, about 78–99 million years ago in the Late Cretaceous.[2] In contrast, other studies have dated the origin of the group to the early Paleocene.[3] The bufonids likely radiated out of South America during the Eocene, with the entire radiation occurring during the Eocene to Oligocene, marking an extremely rapid divergence likely facilitated by the Paleogene's changing climatic conditions.[3]
Taxonomy
editThe following phylogeny of most genera in the family is based on Portik and Papenfuss, 2015:,[4] Chan et al., 2016,[5] Chandramouli et al., 2016,[6] and Kok et al., 2017[3]
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Ingerophrynus alongside Leptophryne was grouped as basal to the clade containing all other Southeast Asian toad genera and Ghatophryne by Portik and Papenfuss, but was found to group with Phrynoidis and Rentapia by Chan et al. Ghatophryne was grouped with Phrynoidis and Rentapia by Portik and Papenfuss but was found to group with Pelophryne and Ansonia by Chan et al. In addition, Sabahphrynus was grouped with Strauchbufo and Bufo by Portik and Papenfuss but was found to group with Pelophryne, Ansonia, and Ghatophryne by Chan et al.
Characteristics
editTrue toads are widespread and are native to every continent except Australia and Antarctica, inhabiting a variety of environments, from arid areas to rainforest. Most lay eggs in paired strings that hatch into tadpoles, although, in the genus Nectophrynoides, the eggs hatch directly into miniature toads.[1]
All true toads are toothless and generally warty in appearance. They have a pair of parotoid glands on the back of their heads. These glands contain an alkaloid poison which the toads excrete when stressed. The poison in the glands contains a number of toxins causing different effects. Bufotoxin is a general term. Different animals contain significantly different substances and proportions of substances. Some, like the cane toad Rhinella marina, are more toxic than others. Some "psychoactive toads", such as the Colorado River toad Incilius alvarius,[7] have been used recreationally for the effects of their bufotoxin.
Depending on the species, male or female toads may possess a Bidder's organ, a trait unique to all bufonids except genera Melanophryniscus and Truebella.[8] Under the right conditions, the organ becomes an active ovary.[9]
The loss of teeth has arisen in frogs independently over 20 times. Notably, all members of Bufonidae are toothless. Another Anuran family with a comparable degree of edentulism is the family Microhylidae.[10]
Reproduction
editInternal fertilization occurs in four bufonid genera.[11]
- Mertensophryne (some species)
- Nectophrynoides (presumably all species)
- Altiphrynoides malcolmi (one out of two species in the genus Altiphrynoides)
- Nimbaphrynoides occidentalis (the sole species in the monotypic genus Nimbaphrynoides)
Ascaphus (all species) and Eleutherodactylus (two species, E. coqui and E. jasperi) are the only other frog genera that have internal fertilization.[11] Limnonectes larvaepartus also has internal fertilization.[12]
Taxonomy and genera
editThe family Bufonidae contains over 570 species among 52 genera.
| Genus name and author | Common name | Species |
|---|---|---|
| Adenomus Cope, 1861 | Dwarf toads | 2
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| Altiphrynoides Dubois, 1987 | Ethiopian toads | 2
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| Amazophrynella Fouquet et al., 2012 | 12
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| Anaxyrus Tschudi, 1845 | 23
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| Ansonia Stoliczka, 1870 | Stream toads | 34
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| Atelopus Duméril & Bibron, 1841 | Stubfoot toads | 96
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| Barbarophryne Beukema, de Pous, Donaire-Barroso, Bogaerts, Garcia-Porta, Escoriza, Arribas, El Mouden, and Carranza, 2013 (1 sp.) | Tiznit toad; Brongersma's toad | 1
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| Blythophryne Chandramouli et al., 2016[13] | Andaman bush toads | 1
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| Bufo Garsault, 1764 | Toads | 18
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| Bufoides Pillai & Yazdani, 1973 | Mawblang toads; Rock toads | 2
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| Bufotes Rafinesque, 1815 | Palearctic green toads | 15
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| Capensibufo Grandison, 1980 | Cape toads | 5
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| Churamiti Channing & Stanley, 2002 | 1
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| Dendrophryniscus Jiménez de la Espada, 1871 | Tree toads | 16
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| Didynamipus Andersson, 1903 | Four-digit toad | 1
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| Duttaphrynus Frost et al., 2006 | Dutta's toads | 23
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| Epidalea Cope, 1864 | Natterjack toad | 1
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| Firouzophrynus Safaei-Mahroo and Ghaffari, 2020 | Firouz's toads | 5
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| Frostius Cannatella, 1986 | Frost's toads | 2
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| Ghatophryne Biju, Van Bocxlaer, Giri, Loader, and Bossuyt, 2009 | 2
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| Incilius Cope, 1863 | Central American toads; Middle American toads; Cerro Utyum toads | 39
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| Ingerophrynus Frost, Grant, Faivovich, Bain, Haas, Haddad, de Sá, Channing, Wilkinson, Donnellan, Raxworthy, Campbell, Blotto, Moler, Drewes, Nussbaum, Lynch, Green, and Wheeler, 2006 | Hainan toads | 12
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| Kenyaphrynoides Liedtke, Malonza, Wasonga, Müller & Loader, 2023 | Mount Kenya forest toads | 1
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| Laurentophryne Tihen, 1960 | Parker's tree toad | 1
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| Leptophryne Fitzinger, 1843 | Indonesia tree toads | 3
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| Melanophryniscus Gallardo, 1961 | South American redbelly toads | 29
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| Mertensophryne Tihen, 1960 | Snouted frogs | 14
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| Metaphryniscus Señaris, Ayarzagüena & Gorzula, 1994 | 1
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| Nannophryne Günther, 1870 | 4
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| Nectophryne Buchholz & Peters, 1875 | African tree toads | 2
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| Nectophrynoides Buchholz & Peters, 1875 | African live-bearing toads | 13
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| Nimbaphrynoides Dubois, 1987 | Nimba toads | 1
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| Oreophrynella Boulenger, 1895 | Bush toads | 8
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| Osornophryne Ruiz-Carranza & Hernández-Camacho, 1976 | Plump toads | 11
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| Parapelophryne Fei, Ye & Jiang, 2003 | 1
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| Pedostibes Günther, 1876 | Asian tree toads | 1
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| Pelophryne Barbour, 1938 | Flathead toads | 13
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| Peltophryne Fitzinger, 1843 | Caribbean toads | 14
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| Phrynoidis Fitzinger in Treitschke, 1842 | Rough toads | 2
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| Poyntonophrynus Frost, Grant, Faivovich, Bain, Haas, Haddad, de Sá, Channing, Wilkinson, Donnellan, Raxworthy, Campbell, Blotto, Moler, Drewes, Nussbaum, Lynch, Green, and Wheeler, 2006 | Pygmy toads | 11
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| Pseudobufo Tschudi, 1838 | False toad | 1
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| Rentapia Chan, Grismer, Zachariah, Brown, and Abraham, 2016 | 2
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| Rhaebo Cope, 1862 | Cope toads | 13
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| Rhinella Fitzinger, 1826 | Beaked toads | 94
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| Sabahphrynus Matsui, Yambun, and Sudin, 2007 | Sabah earless toad | 1
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| Schismaderma Smith, 1849 | African split-skin toad | 1
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| Sclerophrys Tschudi, 1838 | 44
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| Sigalegalephrynus Smart, Sarker, Arifin, Harvey, Sidik, Hamidy, Kurniawan, and Smith, 2017 | Puppet toads | 5
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| Strauchbufo Fei, Ye, and Jiang, 2012 | Siberian toad; Mongolian toad | 1
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| Truebella Graybeal & Cannatella, 1995 | 2
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| Vandijkophrynus Frost, Grant, Faivovich, Bain, Haas, Haddad, de Sá, Channing, Wilkinson, Donnellan, Raxworthy, Campbell, Blotto, Moler, Drewes, Nussbaum, Lynch, Green, and Wheeler, 2006 | Van Dijk's toads | 6
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| Werneria Poche, 1903 | Smalltongue toads | 6
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| Wolterstorffina Mertens, 1939 | Wolterstorff toads | 3
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| Xanthophryne Biju, Van Bocxlaer, Giri, Loader & Bossuyt, 2009 | 2
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The family also contains an incertae sedis species, "Bufo" scorteccii Balletto & Cherchi, 1970.
References
edit- ^ a b Zweifel, Richard G. (1998). Cogger, H.G.; Zweifel, R.G. (eds.). Encyclopedia of Reptiles and Amphibians. San Diego: Academic Press. pp. 91–92. ISBN 978-0-12-178560-4.
- ^ Pramuk, Jennifer B.; Robertson, Tasia; Sites, Jack W.; Noonan, Brice P. (2008). "Around the world in 10 million years: biogeography of the nearly cosmopolitan true toads (Anura: Bufonidae)". Global Ecology and Biogeography. 17 (1): 72–83. Bibcode:2008GloEB..17...72P. doi:10.1111/j.1466-8238.2007.00348.x. ISSN 1466-8238.
- ^ a b c Kok, Philippe J. R.; Ratz, Sebastian; MacCulloch, Ross D.; Lathrop, Amy; Dezfoulian, Raheleh; Aubret, Fabien; Means, D. Bruce (2018). "Historical biogeography of the palaeoendemic toad genus Oreophrynella (Amphibia: Bufonidae) sheds a new light on the origin of the Pantepui endemic terrestrial biota". Journal of Biogeography. 45 (1): 26–36. Bibcode:2018JBiog..45...26K. doi:10.1111/jbi.13093. ISSN 1365-2699. S2CID 90886846.
- ^ Portik, Daniel M.; Papenfuss, Theodore J. (2015-08-06). "Historical biogeography resolves the origins of endemic Arabian toad lineages (Anura: Bufonidae): Evidence for ancient vicariance and dispersal events with the Horn of Africa and South Asia". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 15 (1): 152. Bibcode:2015BMCEE..15..152P. doi:10.1186/s12862-015-0417-y. ISSN 1471-2148. PMC 4527211. PMID 26245197.
- ^ Chan, Kin Onn; Grismer, L. Lee; Zachariah, Anil; Brown, Rafe M.; Abraham, Robin Kurian (2016-01-20). "Polyphyly of Asian Tree Toads, Genus Pedostibes Günther, 1876 (Anura: Bufonidae), and the Description of a New Genus from Southeast Asia". PLOS ONE. 11 (1): e0145903. Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1145903C. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0145903. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 4720419. PMID 26788854.
- ^ Chandramouli, S. R.; Vasudevan, Karthikeyan; Harikrishnan, S.; Dutta, Sushil Kumar; Janani, S. Jegath; Sharma, Richa; Das, Indraneil; Aggarwal, Ramesh (2016-01-20). "A new genus and species of arboreal toad with phytotelmonous larvae, from the Andaman Islands, India (Lissamphibia, Anura, Bufonidae)". ZooKeys (555): 57–90. Bibcode:2016ZooK..555...57C. doi:10.3897/zookeys.555.6522. ISSN 1313-2970. PMC 4740822. PMID 26877687.
- ^ "The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Retrieved 2019-01-19.
- ^ Piprek, Rafal P., et al. “Bidder's Organ – Structure, Development and Function.” The International Journal of Developmental Biology, vol. 58, no. 10-11–12, 2014, pp. 819–27. Crossref, doi:10.1387/ijdb.140147rp.
- ^ Brown, Federico D.; Del Pino, Eugenia M.; Krohne, Georg (December 2002). "Bidder's organ in the toad Bufo marinus: Effects of orchidectomy on the morphology and expression of lamina-associated polypeptide 2". Development, Growth & Differentiation. 44 (6): 527–535. doi:10.1046/j.1440-169X.2002.00665.x. ISSN 1440-169X. PMID 12492511. S2CID 44753338.
- ^ Paluh, Daniel J., et al. “Rampant Tooth Loss Across 200 Million Years of Frog Evolution.” BioRxiv, 2021. Crossref, doi:10.1101/2021.02.04.429809.
- ^ a b Vitt, Laurie J.; Caldwell, Janalee P. (2014). Herpetology: An Introductory Biology of Amphibians and Reptiles (4th ed.). Academic Press. p. 122.
- ^ Iskandar, D. T.; Evans, B. J.; McGuire, J. A. (2014). "A novel reproductive mode in frogs: a new species of fanged frog with internal fertilization and birth of tadpoles". PLOS ONE. 9 (12): e115884. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...9k5884I. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0115884. PMC 4281041. PMID 25551466.
- ^ S. R. Chandramouli, Karthikeyan, Vasudevan, S Harikrishnan, Sushil Kumar Dutta, S Jegath Janani, Richa Sharma, Indraneil Das, Ramesh Aggarwal. “A new genus and species of arboreal toad with phytotelmonous larvae, from the Andaman Islands, India (Lissamphibia, Anura, Bufonidae)” ZooKeys (2016) 555: 57-90, https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.555.6522
- "Amphibian Species of the World 5.1 - Bufonidae". Archived from the original on 2012-07-15. Retrieved 2008-04-10.
- Stebbins, Robert. Western Reptiles & Amphibians (3rd ed.). Houghton Mifflin Co., 2003.
- Halliday, Tim R., and Kraig Adler (editors). The New Encyclopedia of Reptiles & Amphibians. Facts on File, New York, 2002.
External links
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