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Activism consists of efforts to promote, impede, direct, or intervene in social, political, economic, or environmental reform with the desire to make improvements in society. Forms of activism range from writing letters to newspapers, petitioning elected officials, running or contributing to a political campaign, preferential patronage (boycott) of businesses, and demonstrative forms of activism like rallies, street marches, strikes, sit-ins, or hunger strikes.

Activism may be performed on a day-to-day basis in a wide variety of ways, including through the creation of art (artivism), computer hacking (hacktivism), or simply in how one chooses to spend their money (economic activism). For example, the refusal to buy clothes or other merchandise from a company as a protest against the exploitation of workers by that company. However, the most highly visible activism often comes in the form of collective action, in which numerous individuals coordinate an act of protest together in order to make a bigger impact. Collective action that is purposive, organized, and sustained over a period of time becomes known as a social movement.

Research has also begun to explore how activist groups increasingly use social media to facilitate civic engagement and mass collective action combining politics with technology.

The Online Etymology Dictionary records the English words "activism" and "activist" as in use in the political sense from the year 1920 or 1915 respectively.

Definitions of activism[edit]

Social scientists have long been attempting to explain how and why social changes occur. Early scholars such as Emile Durkheim and Ferdinand Toennies focused on theories of total systems and how these systems changed over time, particularly from early to modern forms of society. Karl Marx was one of the first scholars to focus on revolutions as a primary source of social change. Later, Max Weber (1922) helped formulate the idea of social movements as a source of change in his study of authority. Robert Park (1921) first introduced the theory of collective behavior in the 1920s, which attempted to understand a variety of mob-like behaviors such as revolts, riots, and strikes. Through the 1950s and 1960s, scholars primarily theorized how a combination of individual and structural factors produced common grievances which in turn yielded participation in various forms of collective behaviors; however, these theories tended to dismiss the collective actors as deviants or possessing of some personality disorder (Hoffer 1951). For example, deprivation theory argued that individuals joined social movements because they felt they were being deprived of something to which they were entitled (Glock 1964). Strain theory contended that individuals joined collective action because they experienced anomie, or a disconnection between socially valued goals and the means to achieve them (Merton 1945).

During the 1960s in the United States, there was a surge of so-called “new social movements” which led to a new paradigm in social science research called resource mobilization theory. This understanding presented a new view of activists as rational actors who carefully weighed the costs and benefits of their actions. It also promoted the view of activism as a valid, extra-institutional form of political participation.

The history of the word activism traces back to earlier understandings of collective behavior^[1]^[2]^[3] and social action^[4]. As late as 1969 activism was defined as "the policy or practice of doing things with decision and energy", without regard to a political signification, whereas social action was defined as "organized action taken by a group to improve social conditions", without regard to normative status. Following a the surge of so-called "new social movements" in the United States in the 1960's, a new understanding of activism emerged as a rational and acceptable democratic option of protest or appeal^[5]^[6]^[7]. However, the existence of revolt through organized or unified protest in recorded history dates back to the slave revolts of the 1st century BC(E) in the Roman Empire, where under the leadership of former gladiator Spartacus 6,000 slaves rebelled and were crucified from Capua to Rome in what became known as the Third Servile War.

In English history, the Peasant's Revolt erupted in response to the imposition of a poll tax, and has been paralleled by other rebellions and revolutions in Hungary, Russia, and more recently, for example, Hong Kong. In 1930 under the leadership of Mahatma Ghandithousands of protesting Indians participated in the Salt March as a protest against the oppressive taxes of their government, resulting in the imprisonment of 60,000 people and eventual independence for their nation. In nations throughout Asia, Africa and South America, the prominence of activism organized by social movements and especially under the leadership of civil activists or social revolutionaries has pushed for increasing national self-reliance or, in some parts of the developing world, collectivist communist or socialist organization and affiliation^[8]. Activism has had major impacts on Western societies as well, particularly over the past century through social movements such as the Labour movement, the Women's Rights movement, and the Civil Rights movement.

Types of activism[edit]

Activists can function in a number of roles, including judicial, environmental, internet (technological) and design. Historically, most activism has focused on creating substantive changes in the policy or practice of a government or industry. Some activists try to persuade people to change their behavior directly (see also direct action), rather than to persuade governments to change laws. For example, the cooperative movement seeks to build new institutions which conform to cooperative principles, and generally does not lobby or protest politically. Other activists try to persuade people or government policy to remain the same, in an effort to counter change.

In his 2008 book, Liberating Voices: A Pattern Language for Communication Revolution, Douglas Schuler suggests something he calls an activist road trip, whereby activism and road trips are merged into an activity that can be pursued on geographical levels that range from neighborhood to international.

Activism is not always an activity performed by those who profess activism as a profession. The term activist may apply broadly to anyone who engages in activism, or be more narrowly limited to those who choose political or social activism as a vocation or characteristic practice.

Judicial and citizen activism[edit]

Judicial activism involves the efforts of public officials. Arthur Schlesinger, Jr. - American historian, public intellectual, and social critic - introduced the term "judicial activism" in a January 1946 Fortune magazine article titled "The Supreme Court: 1947". Activists can also be public watchdogs and whistle blowers, attempting to understand all the actions of every form of government that acts in the name of the people and hold it accountable to oversight and transparency. Activism involves an engaged citizenry.

Environmental activism[edit]

Environmental activism describes the actions of those who believe in protecting the Earth's natural environment. This can include a wide range of approaches.

Internet activism[edit]

Further information: Internet activism, Hacktivism, Online social movement, Anonymous (group), Digital rights, and Category:Internet activism

The power of Internet activism came into a global lens with the Arab Spring protests starting in late 2010. People living in the Middle East and North African countries that were experiencing revolutions used social networking to communicate information about protests, including videos recorded on smart phones, which put the issues in front of an international audience. This was the one of the first occasions in which social networking technology was used by citizen-activists to circumvent state-controlled media and communicate directly with the rest of the world. These types of practices of Internet activism were later picked up and used by other activists in subsequent mass mobilizations, such as the 15-M Movement in Spain in 2011, Occupy Gezi in Turkey in 2013, and more.

Internet activism may also refer to activism which focuses on protecting or changing the Internet itself, also known as digital rights. The Digital Rights movement consists of activists and organizations, such as the Electronic Frontier Foundation, who work to protect the rights of people in relation to new technologies, particularly concerning the Internet and other information and communications technologies.

Activism in literature[edit]

Activism in literature (not to be confused with literary activism) includes the expression of intended or advocated reforms, realized or unachieved, through published, written or verbally promoted or communicated forms.

Economic activism[edit]

Economic activism involves using economic power for change. Both conservative and liberal groups use economic activism to as a form of pressure to influence companies and organizations to oppose or support particular political, religious, or social values and behaviors. This is typically done either through preferential patronage to reinforce "good" behavior and support companies one would like to succeed, or through boycott or divestment to penalize "bad" behavior and pressure companies to change or go out of business.

Consumer activism consists of activism carried out on behalf of consumers for consumer protection or by consumers themselves. For example, activists in the free produce movement of the late 1700s protested against slavery by boycotting goods produced with slave labor. Today, vegetarianism, veganism, and freeganism are all forms of consumer activism which boycott certain types of products. Other examples of consumer activism include simple living, a minimalist lifestyle intended to reduce materialism and conspicuous consumption, and tax resistance, a form of direct action and civil disobedience in opposition to the government that is imposing the tax, to government policy, or as opposition to taxation in itself

Shareholder activism involves shareholders using an equity stake in a corporation to put pressure on its management. The goals of activist shareholders range from financial (increase of shareholder value through changes in corporate policy, financing structure, cost cutting, etc.) to non-financial (disinvestment from particular countries, adoption of environmentally friendly policies, etc.).

Design activism[edit source]

Design activism is a conceptualization that occurs across various communities of practice and can be associated with diverse initiatives such as transition movement, speculative design, design futuring, activist systems, biopolitics, and others. One working definition of design activism describes it as "design thinking, imagination and practice applied knowingly or unknowingly to create a counter-narrative aimed at generating and balancing positive social, institutional, environmental and/or economic change."

Tactics of activism

Activists employ many different methods, or tactics, in pursuit of their goals (goodwin). Decisions over what tactics to use or not use may be planned carefully in advance, result from negotiations with law enforcement such as when and where to hold a rally, or be made in the heat of the moment. The tactics chosen by activists are significant because they can determine how activists are perceived and what they are capable of accomplishing. For example, nonviolent tactics generally tend to garner more public sympathy than violent ones^[9]. Tactics such as petitions and letter writing campaigns are typically meant to affect changes in public policy while boycotts are designed to cause financial losses to a particular business.

Charles Tilly (2006) developed the concept of a “repertoire of contention,” which describes the full range of tactics available to activists at a given time and place. This repertoire consists of all of the tactics which have been proven to be successful by activists in the past, such as boycotts, petitions, marches, and sit-ins, and can be drawn upon by any new activists and social movements. Activists may also innovate new tactics of protest, which may occur in response to police oppression or countermovement resistance^[10]. New tactics then spread to others through a social process known as diffusion, and if successful, may become new additions to the repertoire of contention^[11].

Many contemporary activists now utilize new tactics through the Internet and other information and communication technologies (ICTs), also known as Internet activism or cyber-activism. Some scholars argue that many of these new tactics are digitally analogous to the traditional offline tools of contention^[12]. Other digital tactics may be entire new and unique, such as certain types of hacktivism^[13]^[14]. Together they form a new "digital repertoire of contention"^[15] alongside the existing offline one. The rising use of digital tools and platforms by activists^[16] has also increasingly led to collective action and social movements that are self-organized^[17]^[18]^[19] and leaderless^[20]^[21], or what is known as franchise activism.

Common methods used for activism include:

Protest

Strike action
- Hunger strike

Activism industry[edit source]

Some groups and organizations participate in activism to such an extent that it can be considered as an industry. In these cases, activism is often done full-time, as part of an organization's core business. Many organizations in the activism industry are either non-profit organizations or non-governmental organizations with specific aims and objectives in mind. Most activist organizations do not manufacture goods,^{[citation needed]} but rather mobilized personnel to recruit funds and gain media coverage.

The term activism industry has often been used to refer to outsourced fundraising operations. However, activist organizations engage in other activities as well. Lobbying, or the influencing of decisions made by government, is another activist tactic. Many groups, including law firms, have designated staff assigned specifically for lobbying purposes. In the United States, lobbying is regulated by the federal government.

Many government systems encourage public support of non-profit organizations by granting various forms of tax relief for donations to charitable organizations. Governments may attempt to deny these benefits to activists by restricting the political activity of tax-exempt organizations.