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Dissostichus

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Antarctic toothfish, Antarctic cod
Antarctic toothfish (D. mawsoni) in McMurdo Sound
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Perciformes
Family: Nototheniidae
Genus: Dissostichus
Smitt, 1898[1]
Type species
Dissostichus eleginoides
Smitt, 1898
Synonyms[2]

Dissostichus, the toothfish, is a genus of marine ray-finned fish belonging to the family Nototheniidae, the notothens or cod icefish. These fish are found in the Southern Hemisphere. Toothfish are marketed in the United States as Chilean sea bass (or Chilean seabass) or less frequently as white cod.[3] "Chilean sea bass" is a marketing name coined in 1977 by Lee Lantz, a fish wholesaler who wanted a more attractive name for selling the Patagonian toothfish to Americans.[4][5][6] In 1994, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) accepted "Chilean sea bass" as an "alternative market name" for Patagonian toothfish.[6] The toothfish was remarkably successful in the United States, Europe and Asia, and earned the nickname "white gold" within the market.[6] Toothfish are vital to the ecological structure of Southern Ocean ecosystems.[7] For this reason, on 4 September a national day is dedicated to the toothfish in South Georgia.[8][9]

Taxonomy

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Dissostichus was first described as a genus in 1898 by the Swedish zoologist Fredrik Adam Smitt, he was describing a new species from waters off Tierra del Fuego, Dissostichus eleginoides, which he placed as the only species in the new genus.[2][10] Some authorities place this taxon in the subfamily Pleuragrammatinae,[11] but the 5th edition of Fishes of the World does not include subfamilies in the Nototheniidae.[12] The name of the genus Dissostichus is a compound of dissos which means "twofold" or "double" and stichus which means "row" or "line". an allusion to the two lateral lines of D. eleginoides.[13]

Species

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Two species in this genus are recognized:[14]

Distribution

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The Patagonian toothfish is distributed circumpolarly near the Antarctic Convergence, spanning the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian sectors of the Southern Ocean, with a few populations near the Antarctic Peninsula as well as the coasts of Chile and Argentina.[15] The Antarctic toothfish is distributed around the Antarctic continental shelf and in the Ross Sea, generally south of 60°S.[16]

Both species are benthopelagic as adults. The Patagonian toothfish has been found between 600 and 1500 m, and the Antarctic toothfish tends to be found between 1300 and 1900 m.[17] The Patagonian and Antarctic toothfish populations overlap geographically in the southern Indian Ocean, north of the Ross Sea and several south Atlantic islands.[18] The Southern Ocean has not yet been fully sampled, so both species may extend further throughout the region.[19]

Morphology and body size

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The Patagonian toothfish and the Antarctic toothfish are markedly similar in appearance, but can be identified via several morphological features. The Patagonian toothfish has a characteristic scaleless patch between the eyes and a longer visible lateral line.[20]

Both species are long-lived and relatively slow-growing. The Patagonian toothfish can live up to at least 50 years of age and the Antarctic toothfish can live to at least 35 years of age.[21] Both species show the fastest growth in the first 10 years of life, and reach maximum body size around 20 years of age.[21] The Patagonian toothfish grows at an average rate of 2 cm and 1 kg per year.[22] Toothfishes are large in size, with both species reaching maximum sizes exceeding 100 kg.[23] This trait distinguishes the toothfishes from other notothenioids.

History

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The Patagonian toothfish was initially captured in the 1970s as bycatch via trawl fishing vessels around South Georgia Island and off the coast of South America. Most of the individuals caught using this method were juveniles.[24] In 1987, the Patagonian toothfish was caught as bycatch via longline fishing, a technique that captured the larger adults.[24] The fish, marketed as "Chilean Sea Bass," became widely successful in restaurants due to its large size and white, oily flesh, which can be cooked in numerous ways.[6]

Fish were collected in massive numbers, first in Chile and later in Argentina after the Chilean population declined abruptly in 1994.[6] Exploratory fisheries for the Antarctic toothfish were established in the Ross Sea in 1996/1997.[25] The fisheries for the two toothfish species are intended to be distinct; however, there is some concern that the species may be indistinguishable to commercial fishermen.[26] In 2013, the FDA eliminated market distinctions between the species, meaning that the Antarctic toothfish, like its congener, could also be marketed as Chilean Sea Bass. Previously, the Antarctic toothfish was sold under the name "toothfish."[27]

Commercial fisheries

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All fisheries south of the Antarctic Convergence are regulated by the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), which is a subset of the international Antarctic Treaty System designed to prevent exploitation of the region’s natural resources. CCAMLR currently oversees thirteen licensed toothfish fisheries, including seven exploratory fisheries and one research fishery.[28] The five established fisheries target the Patagonian toothfish exclusively, and the exploratory fisheries, mostly concentrated in the Ross Sea, target the Antarctic toothfish primarily.[28] The research fishery targets both species.[28]

The Patagonian toothfish, which has been caught and sold since 1977, is currently being removed legally from the Southern Ocean at an estimated rate of 12,000 to 17,000 tons per year.[28] The Antarctic toothfish, which has been caught and sold since 1988, is currently being removed legally from the Southern Ocean at an estimated rate of 4,000 tons per year.[28] All known Antarctic toothfish and most Patagonian toothfish populations fall within the CCAMLR Convention Area.[29] Northern Patagonian toothfish populations are managed by the nations that control the respective regions in which the populations reside; however, these nations are required to adhere to CCAMLR regulations.[29]

Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing

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As of 2014, CCAMLR was allowing fisheries to remove the Antarctic toothfish at rates that would reduce the population to 50 percent of its current biomass. However, some scientists are concerned that estimations of toothfish biomass may be inaccurate due to a number of factors, including illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing activities.[30]

IUU activities can be challenging to prevent and prove.[6][31] However, centralized international collaborative efforts (between Australia, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and France) to mitigate IUU activities have been reported as successful. As of 2012, measures included CCAMLR’s catch-documentation scheme along with on-sea, satellite and aerial surveillance. A 2012 report indicated that implementation of these measures has reduced IUU activity by 90 percent.[32] However, in 2014 others stated that these numbers may be inaccurate, as IUU fishing in the Southern Ocean is difficult to prove.[30]

Diet and ecological importance

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Both species occupy similar ecological niches. They are piscivorous at all life stages.[33] Juveniles mostly prey on small notothenioids, krill, squid and pelagic fishes. Prey range increases with maturity.[18] As adults, both species consume a variety of fishes, cephalopods and crustaceans.[18] The Patagonian toothfish is opportunistic, and sometimes scavenges penguin and fish remains that sink from the epipelagic zone.[34] The toothfishes may compete with Adélie penguins for prey such as silverfish and krill.[35]

Toothfish are important prey for large mammals. Patagonian toothfish predators include elephant seals, sperm whales, and killer whales.[19] Antarctic toothfish predators include Weddell seals and whales, especially killer whales.[36] Some data suggests that the overfishing of toothfish may stress whale populations. Hucke-Gaete et al. observed that when toothfish were removed from via longline capture, killer whales were more likely to prey on nearby sperm whales.[37]

Migration and reproductive cycle

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Much remains unknown regarding the life cycles of both toothfish species, particularly the Antarctic toothfish. Much of the existing data has been collected by reports from commercial fishing vessels. Current research suggests that both the Patagonian and Antarctic toothfishes tend to form discontinuous populations, meaning that little gene flow exists between populations.[38][39]

Both species migrate during spawning season. However, the specific duration and distance of these migrations have not been fully characterized. Tag-and-release experiments on the Patagonian toothfish have indicated that most individuals migrate an average of 15 miles from their habitat, and that any migratory movement generally occurs after the fishes reach maturity.[40] However, some anecdotal evidence demonstrates that the Patagonian toothfish may be capable of migrating between the northern and southern poles, likely by submerging beneath tropical and temperate waters.[41]

Patagonian toothfish

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The Patagonian toothfish spawns in deep waters during the austral winter and early spring, between June and September.[19] Discontinuous oogenesis development patterns suggest that Patagonian toothfish do not spawn annually.[19] Individuals migrate to spawn in shallower waters (800–1000 m), although migration patterns can vary widely between different geographic populations.[42] Some data suggest that spawning yields decrease at higher latitudes.[43]

Egg development occurs over a period of approximately three months, with hatching occurring in October or November.[44] After hatching, the planktonic larvae drift for a period of time, likely until February. Around this time, the fish reach a critical size and become bathypelagic. They gradually inhabit deeper waters as they grow, migrating down the continental slope. Adult fish are generally found at depths greater than 500 m.[19]

Antarctic toothfish

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The life cycle of the Antarctic toothfish is less well-characterized. Researchers and fisheries are limited to collecting this species during the austral summer and autumn (December to May) due to harsh polar conditions during the austral winter (June to August). Scientists have not yet collected any juvenile or larvae Antarctic toothfish[45] and have not yet verified the location, season or frequency of spawning activity. Hanchet et al. used all previously collected data from 1996 to 2008 to generate an updated model for the life cycle of the Antarctic toothfish within the Ross Sea fishery, although the authors note that much of this model is based on speculation and much of the data has not yet been collected fully.[46] They estimated that the Antarctic toothfish adults spawn between June and November, and that spawning likely occurs north of 70°S, beyond the Ross continental shelf and slope.[46]

Eggs likely have a development period of four to five months and hatch between November and February, developing more slowly than their Patagonian toothfish counterparts.[46] Current data suggests that spawning requires a large amount of reproductive tissue, and may not occur annually.[46] Planktonic larvae undergo larval drift for a period of several months, likely into late summer or early autumn. Researchers predict that the Antarctic toothfish inhabit benthic regions after reaching 15 cm.[46] Sub-adult individuals develop within the Ross Sea and gradually inhabit deeper waters over a period of two to three years.[47]

Conservation efforts

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In June 2010, 500 scientists formed the Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition (ASOC), advocating to CCAMLR for special protection of the entire Ross Sea.[48] Chilean Sea Bass has been placed on the Red Lists of Greenpeace International and the One World One Ocean Campaign.[49] As a result, a number of restaurant and grocery owners have publicly opted not to prepare or sell Chilean Sea Bass.[50] Furthermore, advocacy projects have been undertaken to increase the scope of public awareness. The New Zealand documentary The Last Ocean was created to communicate the issue of toothfish fisheries, conveying the need to protect the Southern Ocean’s native biodiversity.[45]

In October 2016, a 1.55 million km2 region of the Ross Sea was designated as a marine protected area by the CCAMLR, meaning that most fishing is banned in the area.[51] The area will remain protected until 2052.[52]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Smitt, F.A. 1898 Poisson de l'expédition scientifique à la Terre de Feu.
  2. ^ a b Eschmeyer, William N.; Fricke, Ron & van der Laan, Richard (eds.). "Genera in the family Nottheniidae". Catalog of Fishes. California Academy of Sciences. Retrieved 16 September 2021.
  3. ^ Johanna P. Pierre, JPEC Ltd (6 August 2013) [9 December 2012]. "Chilean Seabass" (PDF). Monterey Bay Aquarium Seafood Watch. Monterey Bay Aquarium Foundation. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 February 2014. Retrieved 12 February 2014.
  4. ^ "The Invention of the Chilean Sea Bass". Priceonomics. 28 April 2014. Retrieved on 16 May 2015.
  5. ^ "John Weller's "The Last Ocean: Antarctica's Ross Sea Project: Saving the Most Pristine Ecosystem on Earth"". Radio Times with Marty Moss-Coane. WHYY. 12 February 2014. Retrieved 12 February 2014.
  6. ^ a b c d e f G. Bruce Knecht, Hooked: Pirates, Poaching, And the Perfect Fish", 2006. ISBN 1-86386-110-2. p. 9
  7. ^ Ainley, D.G. and Pauly, D. (2014). "Fishing down the food web of the Antarctic continental shelf and slope". Polar Record. 50: 92–107. doi:10.1017/s0032247412000757. S2CID 129066454.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  8. ^ "Toothfish Day celebration in South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands".
  9. ^ "- YouTube". YouTube.
  10. ^ Eschmeyer, William N.; Fricke, Ron & van der Laan, Richard (eds.). "Species in the genus Dissostichus". Catalog of Fishes. California Academy of Sciences. Retrieved 16 September 2021.
  11. ^ Dewitt, H.H.; Heemstra, P.C.; and Gon, O. (1990). "Nototheniidae Notothens". In O. Gon and P.C. Heemstra (eds.). Fishes of the Southern Ocean. South African Institute for Aquatic Biodiversity. ISBN 9780868102115.
  12. ^ J. S. Nelson; T. C. Grande; M. V. H. Wilson (2016). Fishes of the World (5th ed.). Wiley. p. 465. ISBN 978-1-118-34233-6. Archived from the original on 8 April 2019. Retrieved 17 September 2021.
  13. ^ Scharpf, Christopher & Lazara, Kenneth J., eds. (12 April 2021). "Order Perciformes: Suborder Notothenoididei: Families Bovichtidae, Pseaudaphritidae, Elegopinidae, Nototheniidae, Harpagiferidae, Artedidraconidae, Bathydraconidae, Channichthyidae and Percophidae". The ETYFish Project Fish Name Etymology Database. Christopher Scharpf and Kenneth J. Lazara. Retrieved 17 September 2021.
  14. ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Species in genus Dissostichus". FishBase. February 2014 version.
  15. ^ de la Rosa, S.B.; et al. (1997). "COMPARATIVE FEEDING ECOLOGY OF PATAGONIAN TOOTHFISH (DISSOSTICHUS ELEGINOIDES) IN THE SOUTHWESTERN ATLANTIC" (PDF). CCAMLR Science. 4: 105–124.
  16. ^ Arana, P.M. and Vega, R. (1999). "EXPLORATORY FISHING FOR DISSOSTICHUS SPP. IN THE ANTARCTIC REGION (SUBAREAS 48.1,48.2 AND 88.3)" (PDF). CCAMLR Science. 6: 1–17.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  17. ^ Petrov A.F. (2011). "Distribution and biological characteristics of two species of toothfishes of the genus Dissostichus (Fam. Nototheniidae) at Bouvet Island". J. Ichth. 51, 848–853.
  18. ^ a b c Roberts, J.; et al. (2011). "The diet of toothfish species" Dissostichus eleginoides and Dissostichus mawsoni with overlapping distributions. J. Fish Bio. 79, 138–154.
  19. ^ a b c d e Collins M.A., et al. (2010). "The Patagonian toothfish: biology, ecology and fishery". Adv. Mar. Bio. 58, 227–300.
  20. ^ Fischer W. and Hureau J.C. (1985). "FAO Species identification sheets for fishery purposes". Southern Ocean: Fishing Areas 48, 58, and 88 (CCAMLR Convention Area) 2, 233–470.
  21. ^ a b Horn P.L. (2002). "Age and growth of Patagonian toothfish (Dissostichus eleginoides) and Antarctic toothfish (D. mawsoni) in waters from the New Zealand subantarctic to the Ross Sea, Antarctica". Fish. Res.56, 275–287.
  22. ^ Ainley D.G., et al. (2013). "Decadal trends in abundance, size and condition of Antarctic toothfish in McMurdo Sound, Antarctica, 1972–2011". Fish and Fisheries 14, 343–363.
  23. ^ Eastman J.T. and DeVries A.L. (2000). "Aspects of body size and gonadal histology in the Antarctic toothfish, Dissostichus mawsoni, from McMurdo Sound, Antarctica". Pol. Bio. 23, 189–195.
  24. ^ a b Constable A.J. et al. (2000). Managing fisheries to conserve the Antarctic marine ecosystem: practical implementation of the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR). J. Mar. Sci. 57, 778-791.
  25. ^ Hanchet S.M. et al. (2010). Distribution and relative abundance of Antarctic toothfish (Dissostichus mawsoni) on the Ross Sea ice shelf. CCAMLR Sci. 17, 33-51.
  26. ^ Willock, A. (2002). Uncharted waters: Implementation issues and potential benefits of listing toothfish in Appendix II of Cites. Traffic Intl., 3-35.
  27. ^ Fda.gov. The FDA Seafood List - Updates for 2013. Accessed 15 March 2015.
  28. ^ a b c d e Ccamlr.org. Toothfish fisheries. Accessed 29 January 2019.
  29. ^ a b Lack M. and Sant G. (2001). Patagonian toothfish: Are conservation and trade measures working? TRAFFIC Bul.19, 1-18.
  30. ^ a b Abrams, P.A. (2014). How precautionary is the policy governing the Ross Sea Antarctic toothfish (Dissostichus mawsoni) fishery? Antarc. Sci. 26, 3-13.
  31. ^ Urbina, Ian (28 July 2015). "A Renegade Trawler, Hunted for 10,000 Miles by Vigilantes". The New York Times.
  32. ^ Osterblom H. and Bodin O. (2012). Global cooperation among diverse organizations to reduce illegal fishing in the Southern Ocean. Conserv. Bio. 26, 638-648.
  33. ^ McKenna J.E. (1991). Trophic relationships within the Antarctic demersal fish community of South Georgia Island. Fish. Bul. 89, 643-654.
  34. ^ Stevens D.W. (2004). Stomach contents of the Antarctic toothfish (Dissostichus mawsoni) from the Western Ross Sea, Antarctica. Hobart: CCAMLR, WG-FSA 04/31.
  35. ^ Ainley D.G., et al. (2006). Competition among penguins and cetaceans reveals trophic cascades in the Western Ross Sea, Antarctica. Ecol. 87, 2080-2093.
  36. ^ Ainley D.G. and Siniff D.B. (2009). The importance of Antarctic toothfish as prey of Weddell Seals in the Ross Sea. Antarc. Sci. 21, 317-327.
  37. ^ Hucke-Gaete et al. (2004). Operational interactions of sperm whales and killer whales with the Patagonian toothfish industrial fishery off southern Chile. CCAMLR Sci. 11, 127-140.
  38. ^ Kuhn K.L. and Gaffney P.M. (2008). Population subdivision in the Antarctic toothfish (Dissostichus mawsoni) and revealed by mitochondrial and nuclear single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). Antarctic Sci. 1-12.
  39. ^ Smith P. and McVeagh M. (2000). Allozyme and microsatellite DNA markers of toothfish population structure in the Southern Ocean. J. Fish Bio. 57, 72-83.
  40. ^ Williams R. et al. (2002). Movement, growth and available abundance to the fishery of Dissostichus eleginoides Smitt, 1898 at Heard Island, derived from tagging experiments. CCAMLR Sci. 9, 33-48.
  41. ^ Moller P.R. et al. (2003). Fish migration: Patagonian toothfish found off Greenland. Nature 421, 599.
  42. ^ Laptikhovsky V. (2006). Latitudinal and bathymetric trends in egg size variation: a new look at Thorson's and Rass's rules. Mar. Ecol.27, 7-14.
  43. ^ Arana P.M. (2009). Reproductive aspects of the Patagonian toothfish (Dissostichus eleginoides) off southern Chile. Lat. Am. J. Aqua. Res. 37, 381-394.
  44. ^ Evseenko S.A. (1995). Early life history of the Patagonian toothfish, Dissostichus eleginoides Smitt, 1898 in the Atlantic sector of the Southern Ocean. Antarc. Sci. 7, 221-226.
  45. ^ a b Young, P. (2012). The last ocean: The toothfish and the battle for Antarctica’s soul. Fisheye Films. Documentary.
  46. ^ a b c d e Hanchet S.M. et al. (2008). A hypothetical life cycle for Antarctic toothfish (Dissostichus mawsoni) in the Ross Sea region. CCAMLR Sci. 15, 35-53.
  47. ^ Hanchet S.M. et al. (2003). Characterisation of the exploratory fishery for toothfish (Dissostichus mawsoni and D. eleginoides) in the Ross Sea, and approaches to the assessment of the stocks. N.Z. Fish. Assess. Report 43, 3-27.
  48. ^ Asoc.org (2010). Scientists’ consensus statement on protection of the Ross Sea.
  49. ^ Bedolfe S. (2012). The red list: Chilean Sea Bass. One World One Ocean.
  50. ^ Trenor C. (2010). Carting Away the Oceans. Greenpeace.
  51. ^ Howard, Brian Clark (27 October 2016). "World's Largest Marine Reserve Created Off Antarctica". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 28 October 2016. Retrieved 30 January 2019.
  52. ^ "Ross Sea Region Marine Protected Area". U.S. Department of State. 27 October 2016. Archived from the original on 24 June 2017. Retrieved 30 January 2019.
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