Art of the Crusades

Presentation of Christ from the Melisende Psalter

Krak des Chevaliers, the largest Crusader castle

The Art of the Crusades

The art of the Crusader states spans two significant European artistic periods. Romanesque and Gothic. However, Gothic style scarcely appeared in Crusader art and its artistic output was limited by the military setbacks of the Crusaders. Their most notable and influential achievements were in architecture, sculpture, and mosaics, particularly the Crusader castles

Presentation of Christ from the Melisende Psalter

and churches. Just like most things in Crusader art, they were built with a blend of Byzantine techniques. This military architectured housed some of the most crucial art pieces to the art of the Crusades and provided insight to what intercultural relations existed during this period. Folda believed the Crusaders adapted Byzantine methods for these fortifications, creating structures of great architectural and defensive significance (Folda, 2008).

Byzantine and Islamic art especially dominated the Crusader states. The Crusaders encountered a rich artistic tradition upon their arrival in the Levant in the late 11th and early 13th centuries. Other styles such as those of the indigenous Syrians and Armenians were also influential during this time period of art. The intermixing of these cultures stemming from Eastern styles all the way through Europe created some of the most valuable pieces of art. The nature of these pieces included aspects from each culture and religion, creating hybrid versions of mosaics and sculptures. Western styles were also included. Some regions include France, Italy, Germany, and England. That being said, although these regions held influence, the Byzantine and Islamic traditions and styles were the most influential in Crusader art (Weitzmann, 1993; Folda, 2008).

Artists in the Crusader states had varied backgrounds, which leads to the creators

Krak des Chevaliers, the largest Crusader castle

and exact time periods to be hard to pinpoint. Thanks to scholars who have dedicated many hours to these topics and the Art of the Crusades, we know Crusader art consisted of blending Eastern and Western traditions. The identities of many of these artists are hard to figure out but scholars like Kurt Weitzmann, Doula Mouriki, and Jaroslav Folda have contributed many hours, articles, and work in analyzing these pieces and time periods. They emphasize the caution with which art historians approach the art of the Crusades, as the blending of Eastern Christian, Byzantine, Islamic, and Western elements complicates any attempt at clear attribution (Weitzmann, 1993; Folda, 2008). Many art historians attempt to guess the backgrounds, in terms of ethnicity, place of birth and training, of the artists involved with particular works, an effort treated with caution. Therefore, we are left with an idea of what culturally, artistically, and stylistically influenced the art of the Crusades, and what remains of them.

Illuminated manuscripts

Crusader art demonstrates a remarkable fusion of cultural influences, as exemplified by illuminated manuscripts and iconography. Two notable examples are the Melisende Psalter and the works produced at Saint Catherine's Monasteryin Egypt. These examples highlight the blending of European, Byzantine, and Islamic styles. This directly reflects the interconnected artistic traditions of the Crusader period.

13th-century icon from, and probably painted at, Saint Catherine's Monastery in Sinai, with a quasi-Venetian style.

To go deeper into these two key illuminated manuscripts, the Melisende Psalter, an illuminated manuscript produced in the mid-12th century. It is believed to have been created for Queen Melisende of Jerusalem, who was a key figure in the Crusader Kingdom. This manuscript is key to the Art of the Crusades because it reflects Melisende’s European and Armenian heritage while incorporating Byzantine and Islamic artistic techniques. This blend of cultures is what the Art of the Crusades was centered around, so pieces like this serve as clear examples of this. Scholars such as Folda (2005)suggest that it was likely produced by a collaborative workshop of artists from diverse cultural backgrounds in Jerusalem, demonstrating the interwoven nature of Crusader efforts during this time period.

In relation to the Saint Catherine's Monastery, According to Weitzmann and Galavaris (1981), artists from France and Italy, worked alongside local craftsmen, producing art that blended Byzantine and Western conventions. Once again reiterating the ideas of the blend between cultures producing most manuscripts, especially illuminated manuscripts, in this time period. Often featuring lettering in Greek, this reflected the religious aspect of the Monastery as it is a Greek Orthodox Monastery. Though Latin manuscripts were later destroyed, reportedly under Russian influence during the late medieval period (Cutler, 1992), the durability and strength of its illuminated manuscript collection has kept a significant amount of the work located in this Monastery.

Mosaics

Mosaics created during the Crusader period are some of the most detailed and compelling works that emerged from this time period. These mosaics were located in significant religious sites, such as the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem and the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem. As well as the Hospitaller church at Abu Ghosh, historically regarded as the biblical Emmaus, this location contains well-preserved Crusader frescoes. Most of the significant surviving illuminated manuscripts were produced in the 13th century, about half in the last forty years of the Latin kingdom; to what extent this is an accident of survival is unclear. Some icons in mosaic survived from both of these religious locations.

The Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, renovated and rebuilt by the Crusaders, and was completed in 1149. Surviving mosaics, which are far and few between, provide insight to the Crusader battles and artistic styles. In addition to this, the remains in this location show the use of Byzantine style, characterized by the famous gold backgrounds and red accents as well as religious figures, while incorporating Western elements and Gothic architectural descriptions (Folda, 2005). As (Folda, 2005) notes, these stylistic designs to mosaics reflect what Jerusalem looked like under Crusader rule.

The Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem also serves as an important insight into Crusader times through the use of more Crusader mosaics. These mosaics are more narratively descriptive through the use of saints and more vibrant colors. Western stylistic elements as seen throughout the Crusader time period, such as Gothic-inspired architecture and iconographic details show Latin liturgical influence (Weitzmann & Galavaris, 1981).

Frescos at Abu Ghosh.

Lastly, The Hospitaller church at Abu Ghosh, apparently then regarded as the biblical Emmaus, was abandoned in 1187 but has good preserved remains of mosaics. The church's abandonment in 1187 preserved portions of these mosaics, offering limited but valuable insights into the Crusader approach to religious decoration in churches (Pringle, 1998).Though the mosaics located here lack totality, the remaining aspects tell us a lot about stylistic approaches.

Sculpture

Capital from the Church of the Annunciation in Nazareth - (?) one of those buried in 1187

Figurative monumental sculpture particularly in relief, was not a significant feature of local Christian artistic traditions before the Crusades, with the exception of some earlier Armenian works. During the Crusader period, the influence of Romanesque sculpture from Europe, particularly from France, became predominant. This is evident in the carvings and Crusader sculpture work in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem and the Church of Santa Maria Latina, also in Jerusalem. Many elements were re-used in later buildings, and have now re-appeared, often badly damaged. Original work has survived at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, the carved lintels, which once adorned the church, are now housed in the Rockefeller Museum in Jerusalem. These sculptures are stylistically connected to the Romanesque, reflecting the Crusaders efforts to integrate European artistic forms into the Holy Land, which is seen in many art forms during this time period (Folda, 2005).

Another major pilgrimage basilica, the Church of the Annunciation in Nazareth, was just nearing the completion of a major rebuilding in 1187 when Saladin took control of the area. While Saladin left the Christian inhabitants and the structure itself relatively undisturbed, subsequent conflicts, such as the Mamluk invasion in 1267, caused significant damage to the its sculptures. The invasion in 1267 by the Mamluk ruler Baybars, also damaged the building in which these sculptures were houses leading to further damages. Remarkably, in 1908, archaeologists uncovered capitals presumed to have been buried in 1187 invasion. These few capitals, in excellent condition, are among the finest examples of Crusader sculpture. These pieces showcase and intricate Romanesque designs that are influenced by European style in monumental figurative work, as well as other influences during the Crusader period (Pringle, 1998).

The situation is rather different with decorative sculpture, where local influence is much stronger. The beautifully carved and complex decoration on the arches and cornices over the doors into the Church of the Holy Sepulchre is unlike anything in France from this period and reflects local development of Syrian late Roman styles; some parts are probably re-used Roman material. The neighbouring capitals, "based on Justinianic models, are probably the work of local Christian sculptors working for the Latins". (Folda, 2005, p. 179)

The end of Crusader art

After the rapid collapse of the Kingdom of Jerusalem in 1187, Crusaders artistic production would change entirely. Although their artistic output did not cease during the 13th century, the loss of Jerusalem, coupled with the destruction of much of the Crusader infrastructure, meant that a significant portion of their artwork was either damaged or lost. However, Crusader artistic output did not cease entirely. Instead, it shifted. Crusader art moved to cities such as Acre, Tyre, and Antioch, where Crusader states continued to exist until the fall of Acre in 1291. This period of decline was marked by new influences, as the Crusaders engaged with neighboring Mamluk, Mongol, and other costal cultures. Folda discusses this briefly in his work, "Crusader Art in the Holy Land," and further researches the cultural exchanges that shifted Crusader art.

During the Fall of Acre in 1291, in Cyprus, the Lusignan kingdom continued to produce work, including the Gothic cathedrals of Famagusta (Lala Mustafa Pasha Mosque) and Nicosia (Haydarpasha Mosque/Saint Catherine and Selimiye Mosque/Saint Sophia Cathedral), all later used as mosques and relatively well-preserved (minus their figurative sculpture). Both of these buildings, while now used as mosques, retain their Gothic forms. Although this shift from churches to mosques in the Eastern Mediterranean hold important influence to what Crusader Gothic art and architecture have on the buildings and sculptures after the end of the Crusades. The Haydarpasha Mosque in Nicosia as mentioned above holds a real example of Crusader influence because it showcases how the Crusaders adapted Gothic elements in a foreign context (Hughes, 1999).

Gallery

• 
  Latin Empire damaged icon, from a Greek church. The central figure of St George is in painted relief, and clearly Latin in style and clothing
• 
  Several levels of architectural decoration over the doors of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre
• 
  The Holy Sepulchre lintels, still in place in 1856.
• 
  Holy Sepulchre entrance capitals
• 
  The main front of the Lala Mustafa Pasha Mosque, once Saint Nicholas' Cathedral, Famagusta, Cyprus (note minaret added top left)
• 
  Gothic arches of Bellapais Abbey in Cyprus
• 
  Kolossi Castle near Limassol, Cyprus

Further reading

• Evans, Helen C. & Wixom, William D., The glory of Byzantium: art and culture of the Middle Byzantine era, A.D. 843-1261, pp. 389, 1997, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, ISBN 9780810965072; full text available online from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries
• Folda, Jaroslav. Crusader Art in the Twelfth Century, B.A.R., 1982.
• Folda, Jaroslav. Crusader Art: The Art of the Crusaders in the Holy Land, 1099–1291. Aldershot: Lund Humphries, 2008. (ISBN 9780853319955)
• Kühnel, Bianca. Crusader Art of the Twelfth Century: A Geographical, an Historical, or an Art Historical Notion?, Berlin: Gebr. Mann, 1994.
• Weiss, Daniel H. Art and Crusade in the Age of Saint Louis, Cambridge University Press, 1998. (ISBN 9780521621304)

External links

• University of Michigan article

Notes

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Art of the Crusades.

1. Folda, I, 13, quoting Weitzmann; I, 17–18, quoting Mouriki;
2. Folda restricts himself to the art of the "Holy Land" or "Syria-Palestine", Folda, I, 19-20
3. Folda, I, 28
4. Folda, I, 13
5. Folda, I, 27-28
6. Setton and Hazard, 270
7. Discussed in detail at Folda, I, 23-28