Wikipedia

Trimethylglycine

Trimethylglycine is an amino acid derivative with the formula (CH3)3N CH2CO−2. A colorless, water-soluble solid, it occurs in plants.[5] Trimethylglycine is a zwitterion: the molecule contains both a quaternary ammonium group and a carboxylate group. Trimethylglycine was the first betaine discovered; originally it was simply called betaine because it was discovered in sugar beets (Beta vulgaris subsp. vulgaris).[6] Several other betaines are now known.

Trimethylglycine
Names
IUPAC name
(Trimethylammonio)acetate
Other names
  • Betaine
  • TMG
  • glycine betaine
  • N,N,N-trimethylglycine
  • Cystadane
  • Amversio
Identifiers
3D model (JSmol)
3537113
ChEBI
ChEMBL
ChemSpider
DrugBank
ECHA InfoCard 100.003.174 Edit this at Wikidata
EC Number
  • 203-490-6
26434
KEGG
MeSH Betaine
UNII
  • InChI=1S/C5H11NO2/c1-6(2,3)4-5(7)8/h4H2,1-3H3 checkY
    Key: KWIUHFFTVRNATP-UHFFFAOYSA-N checkY
  • InChI=1/C5H11NO2/c1-6(2,3)4-5(7)8/h4H2,1-3H3
    Key: KWIUHFFTVRNATP-UHFFFAOYAI
  • C[N ](C)(C)CC(=O)[O-]
Properties
C5H11NO2
Molar mass 117.146
Appearance White solid
Melting point 180 °C (356 °F; 453 K) (decomposes)
Soluble
Solubility Methanol
Acidity (pKa) 1.84
Pharmacology
A16AA06 (WHO)
License data
By mouth
Legal status
Hazards
GHS labelling:
GHS07: Exclamation mark
Warning
H315, H319
P264, P280, P302 P352, P305 P351 P338, P321, P332 P313, P337 P313, P362
Related compounds
Related amino acids
 Glycine
Methylglycine
Dimethylglycine
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
☒N verify (what is checkY☒N ?)

Medical uses

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Betaine, sold under the brand name Cystadane is indicated for the adjunctive treatment of homocystinuria, involving deficiencies or defects in cystathionine beta-synthase (CBS), 5,10-methylene-tetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR), or cobalamin cofactor metabolism (cbl).[2][3][4][7]

The most common side effect is elevated levels of methionine in the blood.[3]

The EU has authorized the health claim that betaine "contributes to normal homocysteine metabolism.".[8]

Biological function

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Biosynthesis

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In most organisms, glycine betaine is biosynthesized by oxidation of choline. The intermediate, betaine aldehyde, is generated by the action of the enzyme mitochondrial choline oxidase (choline dehydrogenase, EC 1.1.99.1). In mice, betaine aldehyde is further oxidised in the mitochondria by the enzyme betaine-aldehyde dehydrogenase (EC 1.2.1.8).[9][10] In humans betaine aldehyde activity is performed by a nonspecific cystosolic aldehyde dehydrogenase enzyme (EC 1.2.1.3) [11]

Trimethylglycine is produced by some cyanobacteria, as established by 13C nuclear magnetic resonance. It is proposed to protect for some enzymes, against inhibition by NaCl and KCl.[12]

Osmolyte

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Trimethylglycine is an osmolyte, a water-soluble salt-like substance. Sugar beet was cultivated from sea beet, which requires osmolytes in order to survive the salty soils of coastal areas. Trimethylglycine also occurs in high concentrations (~10 mM) in many marine invertebrates, such as crustaceans and molluscs. It serves as a appetitive attractant to generalist carnivores such as the predatory sea slug Pleurobranchaea californica.[13]

Methyl donor

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Trimethylglycine is a cofactor in methylation, a process that occurs in all mammals. These processes include the synthesis of neurotransmitters such as dopamine and serotonin. Methylation is also required for the biosynthesis of melatonin and the electron transport chain constituent coenzyme Q10, as well as the methylation of DNA for epigenetics. One step in the methylation cycle is the remethylation of homocysteine, a compound which is naturally generated during demethylation of the essential amino acid methionine. Despite its natural formation, homocysteine has been linked to inflammation, depression, specific forms of dementia, and various types of vascular disease. The remethylation process that detoxifies homocysteine and converts it back to methionine can occur via either of two pathways. The pathway present in virtually all cells involves the enzyme methionine synthase (MS), which requires vitamin B12 as a cofactor, and also depends indirectly on folate and other B vitamins. The second pathway (restricted to liver and kidney in most mammals) involves betaine-homocysteine methyltransferase (BHMT) and requires trimethylglycine as a cofactor. During normal physiological conditions, the two pathways contribute equally to removal of homocysteine in the body.[14] Further degradation of betaine, via the enzyme dimethylglycine dehydrogenase produces folate, thus contributing back to methionine synthase. Betaine is thus involved in the synthesis of many biologically important molecules, and may be even more important in situations where the major pathway for the regeneration of methionine from homocysteine has been compromised by genetic polymorphisms such as mutations in the MS gene.

Agriculture and aquaculture

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Trimethylglycine is used as a supplement for both animals and plants.[5] Processing sucrose from sugar beets yields glycine betaine as a byproduct. The economic significance of trimethylglycine is comparable to that of sugar in sugar beets.[15]

Salmon farms apply trimethylglycine to relieve the osmotic pressure on the fishes' cells when workers transfer the fish from freshwater to saltwater.[15][16]

Trimethylglycine supplementation decreases the amount of adipose tissue in pigs; however, research in human subjects has shown no effect on body weight, body composition, or resting energy expenditure.[17]

Nutrition

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Nutritionally, betaine is not needed when sufficient dietary choline is present for synthesis.[18] When insufficient betaine is available, elevated homocysteine levels and decreased SAM levels in blood occur. Supplementation of betaine in this situation would resolve these blood marker issues, but not compensate for other functions of choline.[19]

Betaine in foods[20]
Food Betaine (mg/100 g)
Wheat germ, toasted[21] 1240
Quinoa 630
Wheat germ 410
Lamb's quarters 330
Wheat bran 320
Canned Beetroot 260
Dark Rye flour 150
Spinach 110-130

Dietary supplement

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Although trimethylglycine supplementation decreases the amount of adipose tissue in pigs, research on human subjects has shown no effect on body weight, body composition, or resting energy expenditure when used in conjunction with a low calorie diet.[17] The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved betaine trimethylglycine (also known by the brand name Cystadane) for the treatment of homocystinuria, a disease caused by abnormally high homocysteine levels at birth.[22] Trimethylglycine is also used as the hydrochloride salt (marketed as betaine hydrochloride or betaine HCl). Betaine hydrochloride was sold over-the-counter (OTC) as a purported gastric aid in the United States. US Code of Federal Regulations, Title 21, Section 310.540, which became effective in November 1993, banned the marketing of betaine hydrochloride as a digestive aid due to insufficient evidence to classify it as "generally recognized as safe and effective" for that specified use.[23]

Side effects

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Trimethylglycine supplementation may cause diarrhea, bloating, cramps, dyspepsia, nausea or vomiting.[24] Although rare, it can also causes excessive increases in serum methionine concentrations in the brain, which may lead to cerebral edema, a life-threatening condition.[24]

Trimethylglycine supplementation lowers homocysteine but also raises LDL-cholesterol in obese individuals and renal patients.[25]

References

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  1. ^ "Notice of Amendment: Betaine removed from the Prescription Drug List (PDL)". Health Canada. 6 January 2023. Retrieved 3 January 2024.
  2. ^ a b "Cystadane- betaine powder, for solution". DailyMed. 3 October 2019. Archived from the original on 4 August 2021. Retrieved 29 July 2022.
  3. ^ a b c "Cystadane EPAR". European Medicines Agency. 17 September 2018. Archived from the original on 1 July 2022. Retrieved 29 July 2022. Text was copied from this source which is copyright European Medicines Agency. Reproduction is authorized provided the source is acknowledged.
  4. ^ a b "Amversio EPAR". European Medicines Agency. 21 February 2022. Archived from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 29 July 2022. Text was copied from this source which is copyright European Medicines Agency. Reproduction is authorized provided the source is acknowledged.
  5. ^ a b Ashraf M, Foolad M (2007). "Roles of glycine betaine and proline in improving plant abiotic stress resistance". Environmental and Experimental Botany. 59 (2): 206–216. doi:10.1016/j.envexpbot.2005.12.006.206-216&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info:doi/10.1016/j.envexpbot.2005.12.006&rft.aulast=Ashraf&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Foolad, M.R.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Trimethylglycine" class="Z3988">
  6. ^ Schiweck H, Clarke M, Pollach G. "Sugar". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. doi:10.1002/14356007.a25_345.pub2. ISBN 978-3527306732.
  7. ^ Arumugam MK, Paal MC, Donohue TM, Ganesan M, Osna NA, Kharbanda KK (22 May 2021). "Beneficial Effects of Betaine: A Comprehensive Review". Biology. 10 (6): 456. doi:10.3390/biology10060456. ISSN 2079-7737. PMC 8224793. PMID 34067313.
  8. ^ K.K. Tiihonen, K. Riihinen, M. Lyyra, E. Sarkkinen, S.A.S. Craig, P. Tenning (2014). "12 - Authorised EU health claims for betaine". In Sadler M (ed.). Foods, Nutrients and Food Ingredients with Authorised EU Health Claims. Woodhead Publishing. pp. 251–273. ISBN 978-0-85709-842-9. Retrieved 19 February 2024. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) agreed that there is sufficient substantiation of the health claim for betaine concerning its contribution to normal homocysteine metabolism (EFSA, 2011a).251-273&rft.pub=Woodhead Publishing&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-85709-842-9&rft.au=K.K. Tiihonen&rft.au=K. Riihinen&rft.au=M. Lyyra&rft.au=E. Sarkkinen&rft.au=S.A.S. Craig&rft.au=P. Tenning&rft_id=https://www.sciencedirect.com/book/9780857098429/foods-nutrients-and-food-ingredients-with-authorised-eu-health-claims&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Trimethylglycine" class="Z3988">
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  15. ^ a b Mäkelä P (2004). "Agro-industrial uses of glycinebetaine". Sugar Tech. 6 (4): 207–212. doi:10.1007/BF02942500. hdl:10138/312331. S2CID 25219649.207-212&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info:hdl/10138/312331&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:25219649#id-name=S2CID&rft_id=info:doi/10.1007/BF02942500&rft.aulast=Mäkelä&rft.aufirst=P.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Trimethylglycine" class="Z3988">
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  17. ^ a b Schwab U, Törrönen A, Toppinen L, et al. (November 2002). "Betaine supplementation decreases plasma homocysteine concentrations but does not affect body weight, body composition, or resting energy expenditure in human subjects". Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 76 (5): 961–967. doi:10.1093/ajcn/76.5.961. PMID 12399266.961-967&rft.date=2002-11&rft_id=info:doi/10.1093/ajcn/76.5.961&rft_id=info:pmid/12399266&rft.aulast=Schwab&rft.aufirst=U.&rft.au=Törrönen, A.&rft.au=Toppinen, L.&rft_id=https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fajcn%2F76.5.961&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Trimethylglycine" class="Z3988">
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  19. ^ "Dietary reference values for choline". EFSA Journal. 14 (8). 2016. doi:10.2903/j.efsa.2016.4484.
  20. ^ Patterson KY, Bhagwat SA, Williams JR, Howe JC, Holden JM, Zeisel SH, Dacosta KA, Mar MH (1 November 2019). "USDA Database for the Choline Content of Common Foods, Release 2 (2008)". United States Department of Agriculture. doi:10.15482/USDA.ADC/1178141. Archived from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 2 February 2021.
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