Sukkalmah dynasty

The Sukkalmah (c. 1900 – c. 1500 BC) or Epartid dynasty (named after the title sukkalmah used by many of the dynasty's rulers; as well as, the eponymous founder Ebarat II/Eparti II), was an early dynasty of West Asia in the ancient region of Elam, to the southeast of Babylonia. It corresponds to the third Paleo-Elamite period (dated to c. 1880 – c. 1450 BC). The Sukkalmah dynasty followed the Shimashki dynasty (c. 2200 – c. 1900 BC). The title of Sukkalmah means "Grand Regent" and was used by some (but not all) Elamite rulers. Numerous cuneiform documents and inscriptions remain from this period, particularly from the area of Susa, making the Sukkalmah period one of the best documented in Elamite history.

Sukkalmah dynasty Epartid dynasty
Dynasty
A map of the Near East detailing the geopolitical situation in the region during the Sukkalmah dynasty c. 1600 BC occupied by various contemporaneous civilizations such as those of the:   Hattians   Minoans   Elamites   Hyksos   Egyptians   Assyrians   Babylonians   Sumerians   Eteocypriots   Dilmunites   Nubians Adamdun Anshan Awan? Der Eshnunna Hidali? Hurti? Kimash? Liyan Shimashki? Susa Urua? class=notpageimage| A clickable map of Iran detailing cities that may have been occupied by the Elamites.
Parent family	Shimashki dynasty
Country	Elam
Founded	c. 1980 BC (c. 1980 BC)
Founder	Shilhaha (fl. c. 1980 – c. 1635 BC) (Eparti II, fl. c. 1980 – c. 1830 BC)
Final ruler	Kutir-Nahhunte II (fl. c. 1710 – c. 1450 BC)
Final head	Siwe-Palar-Khuppak (r. c. 1778 – c. 1745 BC)
Historic seat	Susa
Titles	List Sukkalmah Sukkal Sukkal of Susa Sukkal of Elam and Shimashki and Susa Sukkal and Ippir of Susa King of Anshan and Susa King of Simashki Enlarger of the Empire Governor of Elam Prince of Elam Governor of Susa Shepherd of the people of Susa Shepherd of Inshushinak
Connected families	Awan dynasty
Dissolution	c. 1450 BC (c. 1450 BC)
The Elamites remained a major source of tension for the Sumerians, Akkadians, Amorites, Assyrians, Babylonians, and Kassites centuries after the Old Elamite empire reached its peak during the reign of Siwe-Palar-Khuppak.

History

Etymology of the title "Sukkalmah"

Sukkalmah was a Sumerian title first attested in the Pre-Sargonic texts from Girsu, where it seems to have had the meaning of "prime minister" or "grand vizier." The title was well-attested under the powerful Ur III state, where it remained associated with Girsu and nearby Lagash. The Sukkalmahs of Lagash held effective control over the entire ma-da or buffer zone to the north and east of the Ur III core territory, and thus held authority over Susa. The Sukkalmah Arad-Nanna held the title of shagina or military governor of Pashime on the southern coast of Iran, indicating that the influence of the Neo-Sumerian Sukkalmahs could extend quite deep into Elamite territory. The later adoption of the title Sukkalmah by the Elamites probably reflects the considerable political influence that the Neo-Sumerian Sukkalmahs had on Susiana and Elam, and may have also been favored due to similarity between the Sumerian sukkal and the Elamite title sunkir or sukkir meaning "king".

Isin-Larsa period (c. 2025 – c. 1894 BC)

The founder of the dynasty was a ruler named Shilhaha, who described himself as "the chosen son of Ebarat", who may have been the same as King Ebarti mentioned as the 9th King of the Shimashki Dynasty. Ebarat appears as the founder of the dynasty according to building inscriptions, but later kings rather seem to refer to Shilhaha in their filiation claims.

The names of Ebarat and Shilhaha, the founding members of the Sukkalmah Dynasty, have been found on the Gunagi silver vessels, inscribed in the Linear Elamite script. The Gunagi vessels were discovered relatively recently, in 2004. French archaeologist François Desset identified repetitive sign sequences in the beginning of the Gunagi inscriptions, and guessed they were names of Kings, in a manner somewhat similar to Grotefend's decipherment of Old Persian cuneiform in 1802–1815. Using the small set of letters identified in 1905–1912, the number of symbols in each sequence taken as syllables, and in one instance the repetition of a symbol, Desset was able to identify the only two contemporary historical rulers that matched these conditions: Shilhaha and Ebarat, the two earliest kings of the Sukkalmah Dynasty. Another set of signs matched the well-known God of the period: Napirisha:

• E-b-r-t, Ebarat II, founder of the Sukkalmah Dynasty.
• Shi-l-ha-ha, Shilhaha, second king of the Sukkalmah Dynasty.
• Na-pi-r-ri-sha, God Napirisha.

Old Babylonian period (c. 1894 – c. 1595 BC)

The dynasty was roughly contemporary with the Old Assyrian period, and the Old Babylonian period in Mesopotamia. During this time, Susa was under Elamite control, but Akkadian-speaking Mesopotamian states such as Larsa and Isin continually tried to retake the city. Notable Sukkalmah dynasty rulers in Elam during this time include Suruhduh/Siruk-tuh/Sirukdukh (c. 1850), who entered into various military coalitions to contain the power of the south Mesopotamian states. Siruk-tuh was the king of Elam when Hammurabi first ruled, he and later kings of the Elamite dynasty were referred to as "great king" and "father" by kings in Syria and Mesopotamia and were the only kings that the Mesopotamian Kings considered to be higher in status than themselves.

Siwe-Palar-Khuppak, who for some time was the most powerful person in the area, respectfully addressed as "Father" by Mesopotamian kings such as Zimrilim of Mari, Shamshi-Adad I of Assyria, and even Hammurabi of Babylon. During his reign alone, Elam interfered extensively with Mesopotamian politics, allowing messengers and envoys to travel far west to Emar and Qatna in Syria. His messenger reached Emar and sent his three servants to King Amut-piʾel II of Qatna (1772-1762 BC), and the king of Qatna also sent two messengers to Elam. Around 1760 BC, Hammurabi drove out the Elamites, overthrew Rim-Sin of Larsa, and established a Babylonian Empire in Mesopotamia. Thus, Siwe-Palar-Khuppak instead turned his army eastward conquering parts of Iran.

The Elamite rulers had become increasingly involved in Mesopotamian politics during the Sukkalmah dynasty. In fact, Rim-Sin of Larsa himself was of Elamite descent, notwithstanding his Akkadian name. Kudur-Nahhunte, who plundered the temples of southern Mesopotamia. But Elamite influence in southern Mesopotamia did not last. Little is known about the later part of this dynasty, since sources again become sparse with the Kassite rule of Babylon (from c. 1595).

List of rulers

The following list should not be considered complete:

#	Depiction	Name	Succession	Title	Approx. dates	Notes
Isin-Larsa period (c. 2025 – c. 1894 BC)
Shimashki dynasty (c. 2220 – c. 1792 BC)
9th		Ebarat II 𒂊𒁀𒊏𒀜 E-b-r-t	Eponymous founder of the Epartid dynasty	Sukkalmah King of Anshan and Susa King of Shimashki	Uncertain, m. c. 1973 BC to Matum-Niatum	temp. of: Shu-Ilishu Iddin-Dagan Shilhaha
8th		Tan-Ruhuratir II	Son of Indattu II (?)	King of Shimashki	Uncertain, fl. c. 2028 – c. 1950 BC	temp. of: Shu-Ilishu Iddin-Dagan Bilalama
10th		Indattu II 𒀭𒄿𒁕𒁺	Son of Tan-Ruhurater I (?)	King of Shimashki	reigned c. 1945 – c. 1925 BC	temp. of: Iddin-Dagan Bilalama Gungunum
11th		Idattunapir	Unclear succession	King of Shimashki	Uncertain, fl. c. 1928 – c. 1880 BC	temp. of: Sumuabum
12th		Idattutemti	Unclear succession	King of Shimashki	Uncertain, fl. c. 1928 – c. 1792 BC
"Twelve kings of Shimashki." — Susanian Dynastic List
Epartid dynasty (c. 1980 – c. 1830 BC)
2nd		Shilhaha 𒂊𒁀𒊏𒀜 Shi-l-ha-ha	Son of Ebarat III	Sukkalmah King of Anshan and Susa	Uncertain, fl. c. 1980 – c. 1635 BC	temp. of: Ebarat II Attakhushu
3rd		Kuk-Nashur I	Son of Shilhaha	Sukkalmah
Sukkalmah dynasty (c. 1980 – c. 1450 BC)
4th		Palar-Ishshan	Unclear succession	Sukkalmah	Uncertain, fl. c. 1980 – c. 1545 BC
5th		Kuk-Sanit	Son of Palar-Ishshan (?)
6th		Lankuku	Father of Kuk-Kirwash		Uncertain, fl. c. 1980 – c. 1520 BC
7th		Kuk-Kirwash	Nephew of Palar-Ishshan (?)	Sukkalmah Sukkal of Elam and Shimashki and Susa
8th		Tem-Sanit	Son of Kuk-Kirwash		Uncertain, fl. c. 1928 – c. 1505 BC
9th		Kuk-Nahhunte	Son of Kuk-Kirwash
Old Babylonian period (c. 1894 – c. 1450 BC)
10th		Attakhushu	Son of Kuk-Nashur I (?)	Sukkal and Ippir of Susa Shepherd of the people of Susa Shepherd of Inshushinak	Uncertain, d. c. 1894 BC	temp. of: Ebarat II Shilhaha Gungunum
11th		Tetep-Mada	Son of Kuk-Nashur I (?)	Shepherd of the people of Susa	Uncertain, fl. c. 1894 – c. 1790 BC	temp. of: Sumuabum
12th		Shirukduh	Descendant of Shilhaha (?)	Sukkalmah	Uncertain, fl. c. 1792 – c. 1763 BC	temp. of: Shamshi-Adad I
13th		Shimut-Wartash I	Son of Shirukduh		Uncertain, fl. c. 1790 – c. 1763 BC	temp. of: Shamshi-Adad I
14th		Siwe-Palar-Khuppak	Son of Shirukduh	Sukkalmah Sukkal of Susa Prince of Elam	Uncertain, reigned c. 1778 – c. 1745 BC	temp. of: Hammurabi Zimri-Lim Shamshi-Adad I
15th		Kuduzulush I	Son of Shirukduh	Sukkalmah Sukkal of Susa	Uncertain, fl. c. 1765 – c. 1730 BC	temp. of: Siwe-Palar-Khuppak Hammurabi Zimri-Lim
16th		Kutir-Nahhunte I	Son of Kuduzulush I	Sukkalmah	Uncertain, fl. c. 1730 – c. 1700 BC
17th		Lila-Irtash	Son of Kuduzulush I		Uncertain, fl. c. 1710 – c. 1698 BC
18th		Temti-Agun I	Son of Kutir-Nahhunte I	Sukkalmah Sukkal of Susa	r. c. 1698 – c. 1690 BC
19th		Atta-Merra-Halki	Son of Kuk-Nashur I (?)	Sukkalmah	Uncertain, fl. c. 1710 – c. 1570 BC
20th		Tata II	Brother of Atta-Merra-Halki	Sukkal	Uncertain, fl. c. 1710 – c. 1580 BC
21st		Kutir-Shilhaha I	Son of Temti-Agun I	Sukkalmah Sukkal	Uncertain, fl. c. 1650 – c. 1625 BC	temp. of: Ammisaduqa
22nd		Kuk-Nashur II	Son of Kuk-Nahhunte (?)	Sukkalmah	Uncertain, fl. c. 1790 – c. 1625 BC	temp. of: Ammisaduqa
23rd		Kuk-Nashur III	Son of Kutir-Shilhaha I	Sukkal of Elam Sukkal of Susa	Uncertain, fl. c. 1646 – c. 1625 BC	temp. of: Ammisaduqa
24th		Temti-Raptash	Son of Kutir-Shilhaha I		Uncertain, fl. c. 1625 – c. 1605 BC
25th		Shirtuh	Son of Kuk-Nashur III	King of Susa	Uncertain, fl. c. 1605 – c. 1600 BC
26th		Shimut-Wartash II	Son of Kuk-Nashur III		Uncertain, fl. c. 1605 – c. 1595 BC
27th		Kuduzulush II	Son of Shimut-Wartash II	Sukkalmah King of Susa	Uncertain, fl. c. 1605 – c. 1590 BC
28th		Tan-Uli	Descendant of Shilhaha (?)	Sukkalmah Sukkal	Uncertain, fl. c. 1690 – c. 1600 BC
29th		Temti-Halki	Son of Tan-Uli	Sukkalmah Sukkal of Elam and Simashki and Susa	Uncertain, fl. c. 1710 – c. 1650 BC
30th		Kutik-Matlat	Son of Tan-Uli		Uncertain, fl. c. 1710 – c. 1500 BC
31st		Kuk-Nashur IV	Son of Tan-Uli	Sukkalmah	Uncertain, fl. c. 1710 – c. 1698 BC
32nd		Kutir-Nahhunte II	Son of Kuduzulush I (?)		Uncertain, fl. c. 1710 – c. 1450 BC

Gallery

• 
  The Susanian Dynastic List—a regnal list dated to c. 1800 – c. 1600 BC and provenanced at Susa. Its current location is the Louvre Museum, Sb 17729. It names twelve kings for Awan and another twelve for Shimashki. The eponymous ruler Eparti II is the 9th named king on this list.
• 
  Seal impression of King Ebarat (𒂊𒁀𒊏𒀜), founder of the Sukkalmah Dynasty, also called "Epartid Dynasty" after him. He uses the title of king (𒈗 Šàr, pronounced Shar) in the inscription. Louvre Museum, reference Sb 6225. King Ebarat appears enthroned. The inscription reads "Ebarat the King. Kuk Kalla, son of Kuk-Sharum, servant of Shilhaha"
• 
  Sculpture of a lion as a fountain head, Susa, Sukkalmah period.
• 
  Sealed tablet with a serpent god, Susa circa 17th century BCE. Inscription: "Tan-Uli, sukkalmah, sukkal from Susa and Shimashki, son of the sister of Shilhaha".
• 
  Men with daggers, Sukkalmah dynasty, 1940-1600 BCE, Susa, Louvre Museum Sb 1394.
• 
  Sukkalmah Anshan cylinder, Louvre Museum, reference Sb 1515. Ruler enthroned, with his queen standing behind in a flouced garment, under overhanging vines.
• 
  Seal of Adaia attendant to Nin-Shubur, Sukkalmah dynasty, 1940-1600 BCE, Susa, Louvre Museum Sb 1418.
• 
  Cylinder seal mentioning Shilhaha, ca. 20th century B.C. Old Elamite
• 
  Cylinder seal, ca. 19th–18th century B.C. Elamite
• 
  Reception seal, Sukkalmah dynasty, 1940-1600 BCE, Susa, Louvre Museum Sb 1440

See also

• Elam
• Awan (ancient city)
• Awan dynasty
• Shimashki dynasty
• List of rulers of Elam
• List of Assyrian kings
• List of kings of Babylon
• Sumerian King List
• List of kings of Akkad
• List of rulers of the pre-Achaemenid kingdoms of Iran
• List of monarchs of Persia

References

Bibliography

• Cameron, G. (1936). History of Early Iran (Thesis). United States: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780608165332.
• Daryaee, T. (2012). The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780190208820.
• Edwards, I.; Gadd, C.; Hammond, N. (1970). "II". Early history of the Middle East. The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. I (revised ed.). London; New York: CUP. ISBN 9780521070515.
• Ir, E (2015). "SUSA". Encyclopædia Iranica.
• Hansman, J. (1985). "Anshan". Encyclopædia Iranica. 1. Vol. II. pp. 103–107.
• Hayes, W.; Rowton, M.; Stubbings, F. (1964). "VII". Chronology. The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. I (Revised ed.). Bureau of Military History: CUP.
• Hinz, W. (1972). Written at United Kingdom. The Lost World of Elam: Re-creation of a Vanished Civilization. Translated by Barnes, J. University of California: Sidgwick & Jackson. ISBN 9780283978630.
• Leick, G. (2001). Who's Who in the Ancient Near East. Who's Who series. Psychology Press. ISBN 9780415132312.
• Majidzadeh, Y. (1991). تاريخ و تمدن ايلام [History and civilization of Elam] (in Persian). Iran: University of Tehran Press.
• Majidzadeh, Y. (1997). تاريخ و تمدن بين النهرين [History and civilization of Mesopotamia] (in Persian). Vol. 1. Iran: University of Tehran Press. ISBN 9789640108413.
• Potts, D. (1999-07-29). The archaeology of Elam: formation and transformation of an ancient Iranian State (1st ed.). Cambridge, UK; New York, US: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521563581.
• Stolper, M. (1987). "AWAN". Encyclopædia Iranica. 2. Vol. III. pp. 113–114.
• Vallat, F. (1998). "ELAM i. The history of Elam". Encyclopædia Iranica. 3. Vol. VIII. pp. 301–313.

Journals

• Scheil, V. (1931). "Dynasties Élamites d'Awan et de Simaš". Revue d'Assyriologie et d'archéologie orientale. 28 (1). Presses Universitaires de France: 1–46. ISSN 0373-6032. JSTOR 23283945.

External links

• Dahl, J. (2012-07-24). "Rulers of Elam". cdliwiki: Educational pages of the Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative (CDLI).
• Kessler, P. (2021). "Kingdoms of Iran - Elam / Haltamtu / Susiana". The History Files. Kessler Associates.

Language

• Black, Jeremy Allen; Baines, John Robert; Dahl, Jacob L.; Van De Mieroop, Marc (2024). Cunningham, Graham; Ebeling, Jarle; Flückiger-Hawker, Esther; Robson, Eleanor; Taylor, Jon; Zólyomi, Gábor (eds.). "ETCSL: The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature". Faculty of Oriental Studies (revised ed.). United Kingdom. The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature (ETCSL), a project of the University of Oxford, comprises a selection of nearly 400 literary compositions recorded on sources which come from ancient Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) and date to the late third and early second millennia BCE.
• Renn, Jürgen; Dahl, Jacob L.; Lafont, Bertrand; Pagé-Perron, Émilie (2024). "CDLI: Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative". Images presented online by the research project Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative (CDLI) are for the non-commercial use of students, scholars, and the public. Support for the project has been generously provided by the Mellon Foundation, the National Science Foundation (NSF), the National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH), the Institute of Museum and Library Services (ILMS), and by the Max Planck Society (MPS), Oxford and University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA); network services are from UCLA's Center for Digital Humanities.
• Sjöberg, Åke Waldemar; Leichty, Erle; Tinney, Steve (2024). "PSD: The Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary". The Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary Project (PSD) is carried out in the Babylonian Section of the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Anthropology and Archaeology. It is funded by the NEH and private contributions. [They] work with several other projects in the development of tools and corpora. [Two] of these have useful websites: the CDLI and the ETCSL.