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The Mushrikites (Arabic: الْمُشْرِكِين, romanized: al-Mushrikīn or Arabic: الْمُشْرِكُون, romanized: al-Mushrikūn, singular Arabic: مُشْرِك, romanized: mushrik) were the Arab polytheists who opposed the Islamic prophet Muhammad and his followers, the Muslims, in the early 7th century. Their leaders were mostly from the Quraysh, but others also belonged to the Qays.
After Muhammad's declaration of prophethood, the Mushrikites harassed members of the nascent Muslim community and were led by Amr ibn Hisham ("Abu Jahl"). Following the increase of tensions between the Mushrik and the Muslims, Muhammad and his companions (ṣaḥāba) migrated to the neighboring city of Medina, where the Islamic prophet was offered sovereignty over the city. An Islamic state was formed in Medina, which received vehement opposition from the Mushrikites, and subsequently, both parties fought at the Battle of Badr in 624, resulting in a defeat.
Etymology
editThe word Mushrikites is the English term derived from the Arabic Mushrikūn, which itself is derived from shirk.[1]: 9:1–15 The term is sometimes translated as 'polytheists' as well. The Meccan polytheists who opposed Islam, were the initially the ones to be referred to as the Mushrikites.[2]
History
editEarly opposition to the Muslims
editMuhammad initially preached Islam privately, mainly among his near relatives and close acquaintances. In 613, the Islamic prophet began preaching publicly, which invited vehement opposition from the wealthy and leading clans of the Mushrik, who feared the loss of their ancestral religion as well as their lucrative pilgrimage business. The sect harassed members of the nascent Muslim community, and often persecuted new converts. The Mushrik assassinated numerous early Muslims, with the most prominent being Sumayya bint Khabbat and Yasir ibn Amir.[3]: 145 [4]: 178 [5]
Boycott of the Banu Hashim
editAs his followers increased, Muhammad might have become a threat to the Mushrikite rulers of the city, whose wealth rested largely upon the Kaaba, the focal point of the Mushrikite religious life that they feared Muhammad to overthrow. The leaders of the Mushrikites offered Muhammad admission into the inner circle of the local merchant community and an advantageous marriage in exchange for his abandonment of Islam, however Muhammad refused this offer.[6]
In 616, the Mushrik started a public, social and economical boycott of the Banu Hashim, Muhammad's clan.[7] According to Islamic tradition, the banishment was carried out in order to put pressure on Banu Hashim to withdraw its protection from Muhammad.[8]
Migration to Medina
editFollowing Abu Talib's death in 619, the Mushrikites plotted to assassinate Muhammad. To escape persecution, Muhammad migrated to Medina, along with his close friend Abu Bakr. In Medina, the Islamic prophet united the Muslims by creating a bond of 'brotherhood' between the Ansar (lit. 'Helpers'), natives of Medina, and the Muhajirun (lit. 'Emigrants'), the natives of Mecca who migrated to Medina.
Battle of Badr
editIn early 624, Abu Sufyan ibn Harb led a trade caravan from Syria, returning to Mecca. Muhammad gathered a small expeditionary force of around 300 men to intercept the caravan. Abu Sufyan was informed of this plot by his spies, and he called for aid. In response, the Mushrikites dispatched an army of strong 1,000 men, led by Amr ibn Hisham.[9] In the ensuing confrontation, Abu Sufyan, "by skillful and vigorous leadership eluded the Muslims", according to the historian W. Montgomery Watt.[9] However, under Amr's command, the Mushrik pursued a direct confrontation with the Muslims, which resulted in the Battle of Badr.
Though the Muslims were largely outnumbered, they nevertheless defeated the Mushrik's forces and managed to kill Amr. Among other Mushrik casualties were Utba ibn Rabiah, Umayya ibn Khalaf, Uqba ibn Abi Mu'ayt, and several other prominent members.[9]
Battle of Uhud
editFollowing Amr ibn Hisham's death, Abu Sufyan was acknowledged the preeminent leader of the Mushrikites. The latter was exhorted to avenge the human and material losses suffered by them at Badr and vowed to conduct a retaliatory raid on Medina.[10] Abu Sufyan formed an army of 3,000 men, led by Amr ibn al-As, with the left and right flanks commanded by Ikrima ibn Amr and Khalid ibn al-Walid respectively.[11] Subsequently, Abu Sufyan inflicted significant losses on the Muslims at the Battle of Uhud in 625, but the Mushrik were generally unsatisfied with the battle's results.[9]
Battle of the Trench
editIn December 626, Abu Sufyan led the attempted siege of Medina, but was defeated by the Muslim defenders at the Battle of the Trench, and his morale may have taken a blow at this failure.[9] The command of the Mushrik forces was transferred to Safwan ibn Umayya, Ikrima ibn Abi Jahl and Suhayl ibn Amr.[9]
Islamic conquest of Mecca
editIn December 629 or January 630, the Muslims conquered Mecca and almost without bloodshed. Abu Sufyan, Ikrima, Safwan and Suhayl all converted to Islam and the Mushrikites ceased to exist.[12]: 459 [13]
Battle of Hunayn
editFollowing the Muslim conquest of Mecca, the Muslims fought the Mushrikites of the Qays and gained a victory.
Aftermath and legacy
editFollowing the defeat of the Mushrikites, the Muslims began to expand and conquer lands of the Christian Byzantines and the Zoroastrian Sasanians. This resulted in the early Muslim conquests under caliphs Abu Bakr and Umar. The Mushrikites culture and tradition died and was replaced by Islamic culture.
References
edit- ^ Ibn Kathir. "Tafsir Ibn Kathir (English): Surah Al Tawbah". Quran 4 U. Tafsir. Retrieved 11 March 2020.
- ^ Na'im 2009, p. 62.
- ^ Muhammad ibn Ishaq. Sirat Rasul Allah. Translated by Guillaume, A. (1955). The Life of Muhammad. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-636033-1
- ^ Muhammad ibn Saad (2013), "Kitab al-Tabaqat al-Kabir", in Translated by Bewley, A. (ed.), The Companions of Badr, vol. 3, London: Ta-Ha Publishers
- ^ Muhammad ibn Saad (1995), "Kitab al-Tabaqat al-Kabir", in Translated by Bewley, A. (ed.), The Women of Madina, vol. 8, London: Ta-Ha Publishers, pp. 185–186
- ^ Watt 1977, p. 36.
- ^ Ramadan 2007, p. 67.
- ^ Peters 2003, p. 96.
- ^ a b c d e f Watt 1960, p. 151.
- ^ Watt 1961, p. 132–135.
- ^ Muir & Weir 1912, p. 258.
- ^ Al-Mubarakpuri, Safi-ur-Rahman (2008). The Sealed Nectar(Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum) (PDF). Al-Madinah Al-Munawwarrah, Saudi Arabia: Darussalam. p. 458. ISBN 978-9960899558. Retrieved 28 December 2021.
- ^ Donner 1993, p. 53, note 340.
Bibliography
edit- Donner, Fred M., ed. (1993). The History of al-Ṭabarī, Volume X: The Conquest of Arabia, A.D. 632–633/A.H. 11. SUNY Series in Near Eastern Studies. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-1071-4.
- Watt, W. Montgomery (1960). "Abū Sufyān". In Gibb, H. A. R.; Kramers, J. H.; Lévi-Provençal, E.; Schacht, J.; Lewis, B. & Pellat, Ch. (eds.). The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Volume I: A–B. Leiden: E. J. Brill. p. 151. OCLC 495469456.
- Watt, Montgomery William (1961). Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman. London: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198810780.