Muisca Confederation

See also: Muisca and Pre-Columbian cultures of Colombia

The Muisca Confederation was a loose confederation of different Muisca rulers (zaques, zipas, iraca, and tundama) in the central Andean highlands of what is today Colombia before the Spanish conquest of northern South America. The area, presently called Altiplano Cundiboyacense, comprised the current departments of Boyacá, Cundinamarca and minor parts of Santander.

Muisca Confederation Muysc Muyquyguamox (Chibcha)
c. 800–1540
Flag of the Muisca Confederation
Location of the Muisca Confederation circa 1500; Zipa, Zaque, and Independent territory labelled
Capital	Bacatá (Bogotá), Hunza, and Suamox, Tundama (800–1540)
Common languages	Muysccubun
Religion	Muisca religion
Zaque and zipa
• ~1450–1470	zaque Hunzahúa zipa Meicuchuca
• 1470–1490	zaque Saguamanchica zipa Michuá
• 1490–1537 1490–1514	zaque Quemuenchatocha zipa Nemequene
• 1514–1537	zipa Tisquesusa
• 1537–1540 1537–1539	zaque Aquiminzaque zipa Sagipa
Historical era	Pre-Columbian
• Established	c. 800
• Spanish conquest begins	March 1537
• Conquest of Funza (Bacatá)	20 April 1537
• Conquest of Hunza	20 August 1537
• Destruction of the Sun Temple	September 1537
• Foundation of Bogotá Battle of Tocarema	6 August 1538 20 August 1538
• Foundation of Tunja Death of Tundama	6 August 1539 December 1539
• Execution of Aquiminzaque	1540
Area
1537	46,972 km2 (18,136 sq mi)
Population
• Early 16th century	2 million
• Density	42.58/km2 (110.3/sq mi)
Preceded by Succeeded by Herrera Period New Kingdom of Granada
Today part of	Colombia - Cundinamarca - Boyacá - Santander

According to some Muisca scholars the Muisca Confederation was one of the best-organized confederations of tribes on the South American continent. Modern anthropologists, such as Jorge Gamboa Mendoza, attribute the present-day knowledge about the confederation and its organization more to a reflection by Spanish chroniclers who predominantly wrote about it a century or more after the Muisca were conquered and proposed the idea of a loose collection of different people with slightly different languages and backgrounds.

Geography

See also: Altiplano Cundiboyacense, Bogotá savanna, and Tenza Valley

Topography Boyacá

Climate

Climate charts for the extremes and four most important settlements of the Muisca Confederation
NW: Vélez – 2050 m Climate chart (explanation) J F M A M J J A S O N D     34     19 7     46     19 8     67     19 9     113     19 9     102     18 9     63     18 9     47     18 9     47     18 9     56     18 8     119     18 9     112     18 9     60     19 8 █ Average max. and min. temperatures in °C █ Precipitation totals in mm Source: Climate-data.org – Bogotá Imperial conversion J F M A M J J A S O N D     1.3     67 45     1.8     67 46     2.6     67 47     4.4     66 49     4     65 49     2.5     64 48     1.9     64 48     1.9     64 47     2.2     65 47     4.7     65 47     4.4     65 47     2.4     66 46 █ Average max. and min. temperatures in °F █ Precipitation totals in inches	Lowest: Charalá – 1290 m Climate chart (explanation) J F M A M J J A S O N D     71     29 15     97     29 16     157     29 16     272     28 16     283     28 16     176     27 16     175     29 15     192     28 15     224     28 15     312     27 16     244     27 16     103     28 16 █ Average max. and min. temperatures in °C █ Precipitation totals in mm Source: Climate-data.org – Charalá Imperial conversion J F M A M J J A S O N D     2.8     83 59     3.8     83 60     6.2     84 60     11     82 61     11     82 61     6.9     81 61     6.9     84 60     7.6     83 59     8.8     82 60     12     81 61     9.6     81 61     4.1     82 60 █ Average max. and min. temperatures in °F █ Precipitation totals in inches	Highest: Aquitania – 3030 m Climate chart (explanation) J F M A M J J A S O N D     11     17 6     22     17 6     49     17 7     139     16 8     219     15 8     113     14 7     109     14 7     94     14 7     83     15 7     109     15 7     75     16 7     24     16 7 █ Average max. and min. temperatures in °C █ Precipitation totals in mm Source: Climate-data.org – Aquitania Imperial conversion J F M A M J J A S O N D     0.4     62 43     0.9     62 44     1.9     63 45     5.5     61 46     8.6     59 46     4.4     57 45     4.3     56 45     3.7     57 45     3.3     58 44     4.3     60 45     3     61 45     0.9     61 44 █ Average max. and min. temperatures in °F █ Precipitation totals in inches	NE: Soatá – 1950 m Climate chart (explanation) J F M A M J J A S O N D     41     25 12     58     25 12     88     25 13     271     24 13     241     23 13     126     23 13     101     23 12     103     23 13     155     24 13     260     23 13     163     23 13     84     24 12 █ Average max. and min. temperatures in °C █ Precipitation totals in mm Source: Climate-data.org – Soatá Imperial conversion J F M A M J J A S O N D     1.6     76 54     2.3     77 54     3.5     77 55     11     75 56     9.5     74 56     5     73 55     4     74 54     4.1     74 55     6.1     74 55     10     74 55     6.4     74 55     3.3     75 54 █ Average max. and min. temperatures in °F █ Precipitation totals in inches
SW: Tibacuy – 1647 m Climate chart (explanation) J F M A M J J A S O N D     72     24 15     90     24 15     109     25 16     170     24 16     155     24 16     88     23 15     57     24 16     52     24 16     80     24 15     214     23 15     216     23 15     100     23 15 █ Average max. and min. temperatures in °C █ Precipitation totals in mm Source: Climate-data.org – Tibacuy Imperial conversion J F M A M J J A S O N D     2.8     75 59     3.5     76 60     4.3     76 61     6.7     75 61     6.1     74 61     3.5     74 60     2.2     75 60     2     75 60     3.1     76 59     8.4     74 59     8.5     73 59     3.9     74 59 █ Average max. and min. temperatures in °F █ Precipitation totals in inches			SE: Ubalá – 1949 m Climate chart (explanation) J F M A M J J A S O N D     47     23 11     93     24 12     136     24 13     216     23 14     290     22 14     360     21 13     332     21 13     276     21 13     205     22 12     188     22 13     132     23 13     72     23 12 █ Average max. and min. temperatures in °C █ Precipitation totals in mm Source: Climate-data.org – Ubalá Imperial conversion J F M A M J J A S O N D     1.9     74 52     3.7     74 54     5.4     74 56     8.5     73 57     11     72 57     14     70 56     13     70 55     11     70 55     8.1     71 54     7.4     72 55     5.2     73 55     2.8     73 54 █ Average max. and min. temperatures in °F █ Precipitation totals in inches
Bacatá – 2700 m Climate chart (explanation) J F M A M J J A S O N D     34     19 4     46     19 4     67     19 7     113     19 7     102     18 8     63     18 9     47     18 8     47     18 8     56     18 7     119     18 7     112     18 8     60     19 5 █ Average max. and min. temperatures in °C █ Precipitation totals in mm Source: Climate-data.org – Bogotá Imperial conversion J F M A M J J A S O N D     1.3     67 40     1.8     67 38     2.6     67 44     4.4     66 45     4     65 47     2.5     64 48     1.9     64 46     1.9     64 46     2.2     65 45     4.7     65 44     4.4     65 46     2.4     66 41 █ Average max. and min. temperatures in °F █ Precipitation totals in inches	Hunza – 2820 m Climate chart (explanation) J F M A M J J A S O N D     23     19 7     30     19 7     64     19 8     116     18 9     108     18 9     92     16 8     70     16 8     69     17 8     72     17 8     122     17 8     108     18 8     43     18 7 █ Average max. and min. temperatures in °C █ Precipitation totals in mm Source: Climate-data.org – Tunja Imperial conversion J F M A M J J A S O N D     0.9     66 44     1.2     66 45     2.5     67 47     4.6     65 48     4.3     64 48     3.6     61 47     2.8     61 46     2.7     62 46     2.8     63 46     4.8     63 47     4.3     64 47     1.7     65 45 █ Average max. and min. temperatures in °F █ Precipitation totals in inches	Suamox – 2569 m Climate chart (explanation) J F M A M J J A S O N D     19     22 8     31     22 9     58     22 9     114     21 10     107     20 10     65     19 9     49     19 9     51     20 9     64     20 9     116     20 10     89     21 9     35     21 8 █ Average max. and min. temperatures in °C █ Precipitation totals in mm Source: Climate-data.org – Sogamoso Imperial conversion J F M A M J J A S O N D     0.7     71 47     1.2     72 47     2.3     72 48     4.5     69 50     4.2     68 50     2.6     67 49     1.9     66 47     2     67 48     2.5     68 48     4.6     68 49     3.5     69 49     1.4     70 47 █ Average max. and min. temperatures in °F █ Precipitation totals in inches	Tundama – 2590 m Climate chart (explanation) J F M A M J J A S O N D     21     21 7     43     22 8     65     22 8     123     20 9     126     20 9     75     19 9     54     19 8     54     19 8     74     20 8     143     19 9     92     20 9     42     21 7 █ Average max. and min. temperatures in °C █ Precipitation totals in mm Source: Climate-data.org – Duitama Imperial conversion J F M A M J J A S O N D     0.8     70 45     1.7     71 46     2.6     71 46     4.8     69 49     5     67 49     3     66 47     2.1     66 46     2.1     67 46     2.9     67 46     5.6     67 48     3.6     68 47     1.7     69 45 █ Average max. and min. temperatures in °F █ Precipitation totals in inches
The climates (Af-Cfb-Cwb) of the geographic (NW, NE, SW and SE) and topographic extremes and for the four main settlements of the Muisca Confederation situated on the Altiplano, from SW to NE; Bacatá, Hunza, Suamox and Tundama are rather constant over the year with wetter periods in April–May and October–November

Muisca Confederation

Location of the Muisca Confederation on the map of the Republic of Colombia.

In the times before the Spanish conquest of the Muisca, the central part of present-day Colombia; the Eastern Ranges of the Colombian Andes was inhabited by the Muisca people who were organised in a loose confederation of rulers. The central authorities of Bacatá in the south and Hunza in the north were called zipa and zaque respectively. Other rulers were the iraca priest in sacred City of the Sun Sugamuxi, the Tundama of Tundama and various other caciques (chiefs). The Muisca spoke Chibcha, in their own language called Muysccubun; "language of the people".

The Muisca people, different from the other three great civilisations of the Americas; the Maya, Aztec and Inca, did not build grand stone architecture. Their settlements were relatively small and consisted of bohíos; circular houses of wood and clay, organised around a central market square with the house of the cacique in the centre. Roads were present to connect the settlements with each other and with the surrounding indigenous groups, of which the Guane and Lache to the north, the Panche and Muzo to the west and Guayupe, Achagua and Tegua to the east were the most important.

History

Prehistory

See also: Altiplano Cundiboyacense § Prehistory

Early Amerindian settlers led a hunter-gatherer life among still extant megafauna living in cool habitats around Pleistocene lakes, of which the humedales in Bogotá, Lake Suesca, Lake Fúquene and Lake Herrera are notable examples. Multiple evidences of late Pleistocene to middle Holocene population of the Bogotá savanna, the high plateau in the Colombian Andes, have been found to date. As is common with caves and rock shelters, Tequendama was inhabited from around 11,000 years BP, and continuing into the prehistorical, Herrera and Muisca periods, making it the oldest site of Colombia, together with El Abra (12,500 BP), located north of Zipaquirá and Tibitó, located within the boundaries of Tocancipá (11,740 BP). The oldest human remains and the oldest complete skeleton were discovered at Tequendama and has been named "Hombre del Tequendama" or Homo Tequendama. Other artefacts have been found in Gachalá (9100 BP), Sueva (Junín) and Zipacón. Just west of the Altiplano, the oldest archaeological remains were found; in Pubenza, part of Tocaima and have been dated at 16,000 years Before Present.

Pre-Columbian era

Herrera Period

Period name	Start age	End age
Herrera	800 BCE	800
Early Muisca	800	1200
Late Muisca	1200	1537
Kruschek, 2003

Main article: Herrera Period

The Herrera Period is a phase in the history of Colombia. It is part of the Andean preceramic and ceramic, time equivalent of the North American pre-Columbian formative and classic stages and age dated by various archaeologists. The Herrera Period predates the age of the Muisca people, who inhabited the Altiplano Cundiboyacense before the Spanish conquest of the Muisca and postdates the lithic formative stage and prehistory of the eastern Andean region in Colombia. The Herrera Period is usually defined as ranging from 800 BCE to 800 AD, although some scholars date it as early as 1500 BCE, considered as the "Early Herrera Period".

Ample evidence of the Herrera Period has been uncovered on the Altiplano Cundiboyacense and main archaeologists contributing to the present knowledge about the Herrera Period are scholars Ana María Groot, Gonzalo Correal Urrego, Thomas van der Hammen, Carl Henrik Langebaek Rueda, Sylvia M. Broadbent, Marianne Cardale de Schrimpff and others.

Muisca

Main article: Muisca

The Muisca were polytheistic and their religion and mythology was closely connected with the natural area they were inhabiting. They had a thorough understanding of astronomical parameters and developed a complex luni-solar calendar; the Muisca calendar. According to the calendar they had specific times for sowing, harvest and the organisation of festivals where they sang, danced and played music and drank their national drink chicha in great quantities.

The most respected members of the community were mummified and the mummies were not buried, yet displayed in their temples, in natural locations such as caves and even carried on their backs during warfare to impress their enemies.

Their art is the most famous remnant of their culture, as living spaces, temples and other existing structures have been destroyed by the Spanish who colonised the Muisca territories. A primary example of their fine goldworking is the Muisca raft, together with more objects made of gold, tumbaga, ceramics and cotton displayed in the Museo del Oro in Bogotá, the ancient capital of the southern Muisca.

The Muisca were a predominantly agricultural society with small-scale farmfields, part of more extensive terrains. To diversify their diet, they traded mantles, gold, emeralds and salt for fruits, vegetables, coca, yopo and cotton cultivated in lower altitude warmer terrains populated by their neighbours, the Muzo, Panche, Yarigui, Guane, Guayupe, Achagua, Tegua, Lache, Sutagao and U'wa. Trade of products grown farther away happened with the Calima, Pijao and Caribbean coastal communities around the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.

The Muisca economy was self-sufficient regarding the basic supplies, thanks to the advanced technologies of the agriculture on raised terraces by the people. The system of trade was well established providing both the higher social classes and the general population abundances of gold, feathers, marine snails, coca, yopo and other luxury goods. Markets were held every four to eight days in various settlements throughout the Muisca Confederation and special markets were organised around festivities where merchants from far outside the Andes were trading their goods with the Muisca.

Apart from agriculture, the Muisca were well developed in the production of different crafts, using the raw materials traded with surrounding indigenous peoples. Famous are the golden and tumbaga objects made by the Muisca people. Cotton mantles, cloths and nets were made by the Muisca women and traded for valuable goods, tropical fruits and small cotton cloths were used as money. The Muisca were unique in South America for having real coins of gold, called tejuelos.

Mining was an important source of income for the Muisca, who were called "Salt People" because of their salt mines in Zipaquirá, Nemocón and Tausa. Like their western neighbours, the Muzo—who were called "The Emerald People"—they mined emeralds in their territories, mainly in Somondoco. Carbon was found throughout the region of the Muisca in Eocene sediments and used for the fires for cooking and the production of salt and golden ornaments.

The people used a decimal counting system, based on the digits of the hand. Their system went from 1 to 10 and for higher numerations they used the prefix quihicha or qhicha, which means "foot" in their Chibcha language Muysccubun. Eleven became thus "foot one", twelve "foot two", etc. As in the other pre-Columbian civilizations, the number 20 was special. It was the total number of all body extremities; fingers and toes. The Muisca used two forms to express twenty: "foot ten"; quihícha ubchihica or their exclusive word gueta, derived from gue, which means "house". Numbers between 20 and 30 were counted gueta asaqui ata ("twenty plus one"; 21), gueta asaqui ubchihica ("twenty plus ten"; 30). Larger numbers were counted as multiples of twenty; gue-bosa ("20 times 2"; 40), gue-hisca ("20 times 5"; 100). The Muisca script consisted of hieroglyphs, only used for numerals.

Territorial organization

Bacatá

The zipa ruled over the Bogotá savanna

• Capital – Bacatá
• Area – 5,430 square kilometres (2,100 sq mi)
• Average elevation – 2,470 metres (8,100 ft)
• Last rulers – zipas Tisquesusa, Sagipa
• Date of conquest – 20 April 1537 (Funza) – Jiménez & Pérez de Quesada
• First city – 6 August 1538 (Bogotá) – Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada

Municipality	Department bold is capital	Ruler(s) bold is seat	Altitude urban centre (m)	Surface area (km2)	Remarks	Map
Bacatá	Cundinamarca	zipa	2640	1587	Muisca mummy found Important market town Petrographs found
Bojacá	Cundinamarca	zipa	2598	109	Lake Herrera Petrographs found
Cajicá	Cundinamarca	zipa	2558	50.4
La Calera	Cundinamarca	zipa	2718	317	Petrographs found
Cáqueza	Cundinamarca	zipa	1746	38
Chía	Cundinamarca	zipa	2564	80	Moon Temple Herrera site Petrographs found
Choachí	Cundinamarca	zipa	1923	223	Choachí Stone found
Chocontá	Cundinamarca	zipa	2655	301.1	Important market town Battle of Chocontá (~1490) Fortification between zipa & zaque
Cogua	Cundinamarca	zipa	2600	113	Muisca ceramics production Petrographs found
Cota	Cundinamarca	zipa	2566	55	Petrographs found Still Muisca people living
Cucunubá	Cundinamarca	zipa	2590	112	Petrographs found
Facatativá	Cundinamarca	zipa	2586	158	Piedras del Tunjo
Funza	Cundinamarca	zipa	2548	70	Important market town
Gachancipá	Cundinamarca	zipa	2568	44	Muisca mummy found Muisca ceramics production
Guasca	Cundinamarca	zipa	2710	346	Siecha Lakes Muisca ceramics production Petrographs found
Madrid	Cundinamarca	zipa	2554	120.5	Lake Herrera Petrographs found
Mosquera	Cundinamarca	zipa	2516	107	Lake Herrera Petrographs found
Nemocón	Cundinamarca	zipa	2585	98.1	Muisca salt mines Preceramic site Checua Petrographs found
Pacho	Cundinamarca	zipa	2136	403.3	Important market town
Pasca	Cundinamarca	zipa	2180	246.24	Battle of Pasca (~1470) Muisca raft found
El Rosal	Cundinamarca	zipa	2685	86.48
San Antonio del Tequendama	Cundinamarca	zipa	1540	82	Tequendama Falls Fortification against Panche Petrographs found
Sesquilé	Cundinamarca	zipa	2595	141	Lake Guatavita Minor Muisca salt mines
Sibaté	Cundinamarca	zipa	2700	125.6	Petrographs found
Soacha	Cundinamarca	zipa	2565	184.45	Preceramic site Tequendama Herrera site Muisca ceramics production Petrographs found
Sopó	Cundinamarca	zipa	2650	111.5	Herrera site
Subachoque	Cundinamarca	zipa	2663	211.53	Petrographs found
Suesca	Cundinamarca	zipa	2584	177	150 Muisca mummies found Lake Suesca Muisca ceramics production Important market town Petrographs found
Sutatausa	Cundinamarca	zipa	2550	67	Petrographs found
Tabio	Cundinamarca	zipa	2569	74.5	Hot springs used by the Muisca
Tausa	Cundinamarca	zipa	2931	204	Muisca salt mines Petrographs found
Tena	Cundinamarca	zipa	1384	55	Fortification against Panche Petrographs found
Tenjo	Cundinamarca	zipa	2587	108	Petrographs found
Tibacuy	Cundinamarca	zipa & Panche	1647	84.4	Border with Panche Fortification against Panche & Sutagao Petrographs found
Tocancipá	Cundinamarca	zipa	2605	73.51	Preceramic site Tibitó Muisca ceramics production Important market town Petrographs found
Zipaquirá	Cundinamarca	zipa	2650	197	El Abra Muisca salt mines Important market town Petrographs and petroglyphs found
Fúquene	Cundinamarca	zipa zaque	2750	90	Lake Fúquene
Simijaca	Cundinamarca	zipa (1490–1537)	2559	107	Conquered by zipa Saguamanchica upon zaque Michuá (~1490)
Susa	Cundinamarca	zipa (1490–1537)	2655	86	Conquered by zipa Saguamanchica upon zaque Michuá (~1490) Lake Fúquene
Ubaté	Cundinamarca	zipa (1490–1537)	2556	102	Conquered by zipa Saguamanchica upon zaque Michuá (~1490) Muisca mummy found
Zipacón	Cundinamarca	zipa	2550	70	Agriculture Place of meditation for the zipa Petrographs found

Chipazaque

Landscape of Chipazaque

Municipality	Department	Ruler(s)	Altitude (m)	Surface area (km2)	Remarks	Map
Junín	Cundinamarca	chipazaque	2300	337	Shared between zipa and zaque Petrographs found

Hunza

The Muisca were bordered to the west by the Emerald People

• Capital – Hunza
• Area – 4,700 square kilometres (1,800 sq mi)
• Average elevation – 2,270 metres (7,450 ft)
• Last rulers – zaques Quemuenchatocha, Aquiminzaque
• Date of conquest – 20 August 1537 (Hunza) – Jiménez & Pérez de Quesada
• First city – 6 August 1539 (Tunja) – Gonzalo Suárez Rendón

Municipality	Department bold is capital	Ruler(s) bold is seat	Altitude (m)	Surface area (km2)	Remarks	Map
Hunza	Boyacá	zaque	2820	121.4	Hunzahúa Well Cojines del Zaque Goranchacha Temple Muisca mummy found Important market town Petrographs found
Boyacá	Boyacá	zaque	2420	48
Buenavista	Boyacá	zaque	2100	125	Border with Muzo Nose piece and pectoral found, dated at 620 and 990 AD respectively
Chinavita	Boyacá	zaque	1763	148
Chíquiza	Boyacá	zaque	2900	119.52	Lake Iguaque
Chitaraque	Boyacá	zaque	1575	157.65
Chivatá	Boyacá	zaque	2903	56
Ciénega	Boyacá	zaque	2460	73
Cucaita	Boyacá	zaque	2650	43.58
Gachantivá	Boyacá	zaque	2450	66	Muisca mummy found Muisca copper mines
Garagoa	Boyacá	zaque	1650	191.75
Macanal	Boyacá	zaque	1680	199.5	Border with Tegua
Motavita	Boyacá	zaque	2690	62	Coca market town Petrographs found
Oicatá	Boyacá	zaque	2815	59
Pachavita	Boyacá	zaque	1985	68
Ramiriquí	Boyacá	zaque	2325	146.5	Place of death of Quemuenchatocha Important ceramics production Petrographs found
Sáchica	Boyacá	zaque	2150	62.4	Petrographs found
Samacá	Boyacá	zaque	2660	172.9
San Miguel de Sema	Boyacá	zaque	2615	90	Lake Fúquene
Siachoque	Boyacá	zaque	2760	125
Somondoco	Boyacá	zaque	1670	58.7	Muisca emerald mines Important market town
Sutamarchán	Boyacá	zaque	1800	102	Muisca ceramics production
Tinjacá	Boyacá	zaque	2175	79.3	Muisca ceramics production
Tipacoque	Boyacá	zaque	1850	72.1	Chicamocha Canyon
Turmequé	Boyacá	zaque	2389	106	Important market town Fortification between zipa & zaque
Villa de Leyva	Boyacá	zaque	2149	128	El Infiernito Lake Iguaque Muisca mummy found Important market town
Sora	Boyacá	zaque	2650	42
Soracá	Boyacá	zaque	2942	57
Sotaquirá	Boyacá	zaque	2860	288.65
Sutatenza	Boyacá	zaque	1890	41.26
Tibaná	Boyacá	zaque	2115	121.76	Petrographs found
Togüí	Boyacá	zaque	1650	118
Tuta	Boyacá	zaque	2600	165
Ventaquemada	Boyacá	zaque	2630	159.3
Viracachá	Boyacá	zaque	2520	68
Zetaquirá	Boyacá	zaque	1665	262
Almeida	Boyacá	zaque	1925	57.98
La Capilla	Boyacá	zaque	1750	57.26
Jenesano	Boyacá	zaque	2076	59
Nuevo Colón	Boyacá	zaque	2500	51
Rondón	Boyacá	zaque	2075	158
Lenguazaque	Cundinamarca	zaque	2589	15.36
Machetá	Cundinamarca	zaque	2094	229.35	Petrographs found
Tibiritá	Cundinamarca	zaque	1980	57.2	Petrographs found
Villapinzón	Cundinamarca	zaque	2715	249

Iraca

The Sun Temple was the seat of the iraca

• Capital – Suamox
• Area – 4,163 square kilometres (1,607 sq mi)
• Average elevation – 2,630 metres (8,630 ft)
• Last ruler – iraca Sugamuxi
• Date of conquest – Early September 1537 (Sogamoso) – Jiménez & Pérez de Quesada
• Important settlements – Suamox, Busbanzá, Firavitoba, Gámeza and Tota
• Archaeological remains – mummies, Sun Temple reconstruction, Lake Tota

Municipality	Department	Ruler(s) bold is seat	Altitude (m)	Surface area (km2)	Remarks	Map
Suamox	Boyacá	iraca Nompanim Sugamuxi	2569	208.54	Sun Temple Muisca mummy found Muisca carbon mines
Aquitania	Boyacá	iraca	3030	943	Lake Tota
Busbanzá	Boyacá	iraca	2472	22.5	Elector of new iraca
Cuítiva	Boyacá	iraca	2750	43	Lake Tota Statue of Bochica
Firavitoba	Boyacá	iraca	2500	109.9	Elector of new iraca
Gámeza	Boyacá	iraca	2750	88	Herrera site Muisca mummy found Minor Muisca salt mines Muisca carbon mines Petrographs found
Iza	Boyacá	iraca	2560	34	Herrera site Lake Tota Petrographs found
Mongua	Boyacá	iraca	2975	365.5	Petrographs found
Monguí	Boyacá	iraca	2900	81	Petroglyphs Birthplaces (Tortolitas)
Pesca	Boyacá	iraca	2858	282
Tasco	Boyacá	iraca	2530	167	Muisca mummy found
Toca	Boyacá	iraca	2810	165
Tota	Boyacá	iraca	2870	314	Lake Tota
Socotá	Boyacá	iraca Tundama	2443	600.11	Muisca mummy found
Tibasosa	Boyacá	Tundama iraca	2538	94.3

Tundama

The area around Tundama was filled with small lakes of which some bloody evidences remain

• Capital – Tundama
• Area – 2,920 square kilometres (1,130 sq mi)
• Average elevation – 2,470 metres (8,100 ft)
• Last ruler – Tundama
• Date of conquest – Late December 1539 (Duitama) – Baltasar Maldonado
• Important settlements – Tundama, Onzaga, Soatá, Chitagoto (now Paz de Río)

Municipality	Department	Ruler(s) bold is seat	Altitude (m)	Surface area (km2)	Remarks	Map
Tundama	Boyacá	Tundama	2590	266.93	Seat of Tundama In ancient lake
Onzaga	Santander	Tundama	1960	486.76	Important for wool and cotton production
Cerinza	Boyacá	Tundama	2750	61.63	Monument to the Muisca
Paz de Río	Boyacá	Tundama	2200	116	Coca market town
Paipa	Boyacá	Tundama	2525	305.924	Thermal springs
Sativanorte	Boyacá	Tundama	2600	184	Herrera site
Sativasur	Boyacá	Tundama	2600	81	Muisca mummy SO10-IX found Herrera site
Soatá	Boyacá	Tundama	1950	136	Herrera site Coca market town
Belén	Boyacá	Tundama	2650	83.6	Petrographs found
Corrales	Boyacá	Tundama	2470	60.85
Floresta	Boyacá	Tundama	2506	86
Nobsa	Boyacá	Tundama	2510	55.39
Santa Rosa de Viterbo	Boyacá	Tundama	2753	107
Susacón	Boyacá	Tundama	2480	191
Tibasosa	Boyacá	Tundama iraca	2538	94.3
Socotá	Boyacá	iraca Tundama	2443	600.11	Muisca mummy found

Independent caciques

Independent caciques headed small communities

• Capital – none
• Area – 3,080 square kilometres (1,190 sq mi)
• Average elevation – 2,140 metres (7,020 ft)
• Important caciques – Guatavita, Ubaté, Chiquinquirá, Ubaque, Tenza, Vélez

Municipality bold is major cacique	Department	Ruler(s)	Altitude (m)	Surface area (km2)	Remarks	Map
Vélez	Santander	cacique	2050	271.34
Chipatá	Santander	cacique	1820	94.17	First town conquered by the Spanish
Güepsa	Santander	cacique	1540	33.08	Border with Guane Border with Yarigui
Charalá	Santander	cacique	1290	411	Border with Guane
Arcabuco	Boyacá	cacique	2739	155	Statue honouring the Muisca warriors
Betéitiva	Boyacá	cacique	2575	123
Boavita	Boyacá	cacique	2114	159	Muisca mummy found
Chiquinquirá	Boyacá	cacique	2556	133
Cómbita	Boyacá	cacique	2825	149
Covarachía	Boyacá	cacique	2320	103	Herrera site
Guateque	Boyacá	cacique	1815	36.04	Religious rituals at Guatoc hill
Guayatá	Boyacá	cacique	1767	112	Muisca money (tejuelo) found
Moniquirá	Boyacá	cacique	1669	220	Muisca mummy found Muisca copper mines
Pisba	Boyacá	cacique	2400	469.12	Muisca mummy found
Ráquira	Boyacá	cacique	2150	233	Muisca ceramics production
Saboyá	Boyacá	cacique	2600	246.9	Petrographs found
Tópaga	Boyacá	cacique	2900	37	Muisca mummy found Muisca carbon mines
Tutazá	Boyacá	cacique	1890	135	Muisca ceramics production
Tenza	Boyacá	cacique	1600	51	Tenza Valley
Chivor	Boyacá	cacique	1800	108.36	Muisca emerald mines
Úmbita	Boyacá	cacique	2480	148.17
Carmen de Carupa	Cundinamarca	cacique	2600	228	Tunjo found
Guatavita	Cundinamarca	cacique	2680	247.3	Muisca ceramics production Main goldworking town Petrographs found
Gachetá	Cundinamarca	cacique Guatavita	1745	262.2
Guachetá	Cundinamarca	cacique	2688	177.45	Minor Muisca salt mines Petrographs found
Manta	Cundinamarca	cacique	1924	105
Ubaque	Cundinamarca	cacique	1867	104.96	Last public religious ritual (1563) Lake Ubaque
Ubalá	Cundinamarca	cacique	1949	505	Muisca emerald mines
Chipaque	Cundinamarca	cacique	2400	139.45	Petrographs found
Fómeque	Cundinamarca	cacique	1895	555.7
Quetame	Cundinamarca	cacique	1496	138.47
Une	Cundinamarca	cacique	2376	221
Fosca	Cundinamarca	cacique	2080	126.02	Fortification against Guayupe

Neighbouring indigenous groups

See also: Muisca economy § Trade, and Spanish conquest of New Granada

Yarigui	Guane		Lache		U'wa
Muzo
Panche					Achagua
Sutagao		Guayupe		Tegua
Cariban languages • Chibchan languages • Arawakan languages
Yarigui and Lache not shown on map • Tegua shown as Tecua • U'wa shown as Tunebo

• Panche
  • Cariban-speaking
  • frequent warfare
  • beaten in the Battle of Tocarema
  • pathways to gold
  • conquest by Hernán Venegas Carrillo (1543–44)
• Muzo or The Emerald people
  • Cariban-speaking
  • trading access to western neighbours
  • Furatena
  • pathways to gold
  • conquest by Luis Lanchero (1539–1559)
• Guane
  • Chibcha-speaking
  • producers of cotton for mantle making
  • producers of fruits
  • access to La Tora (Barrancabermeja); trading sea shells at Magdalena River
  • conquest by Martín Galeano (1539–1551)

Sacred sites

Main articles: Muisca mythology and Muisca religion

The sacred sites of the Muisca Confederation were based in the Muisca religion and mythology. The Muisca were a highly religious people with their own beliefs on the origin of the Earth and life and human sacrifices were no exception to please the gods for good harvests and prosperity.

Lake Guatavita, Guatavita, was the location where the new zipa would be inaugurated. It became known with the Spanish conquerors as the site of El Dorado where the new zipa was covered in gold dust and installed as the new ruler of the southern Muisca.

In the legends of the Muisca, humankind originated in Lake Iguaque, Monquirá, when the goddess Bachué came out from the lake with a boy in her arms. When the boy grew, they populated the Earth. They are considered the ancestors of the human race. Finally, they disappeared unto the lake in the shape of snakes.

According to Muisca myths, the Tequendama Falls, outside Soacha, was the site where the first zipa Meicuchuca lost his lover who turned in a snake and disappeared in the waters of the Bogotá River.

El Infiernito, close to the present town of Villa de Leyva was a sacred site where the Muisca erected structures based on astronomical parameters.

Other sacred sites

• Sun Temple, Sogamoso
• Hunzahúa Well, Tunja
• Goranchacha Temple, Tunja
• Cojines del Zaque, Tunja
• Moon Temple, Chía

• 
  Lake Guatavita; site of El Dorado
• 
  Lake Iguaque
• 
  Tequendama Falls
• 
  El Infiernito; astronomical site
• 
  Cojines del Zaque

Spanish conquests

Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta

Topography Cesar

Topography Santander

The harsh expedition through the jungles of Magdalena, La Guajira, Cesar and Santander cost the lives of more than 80% of the troops and they hadn't found El Dorado...

Tisquesusa
(† 1537)

Sagipa
(† 1540)

Sagipa, or Saquesazipa, was the last ruler of Bacatá, as successor of Tisquesusa, defeated near Funza, on April 20, 1537, and died, as the prophecy said, "bathing in his own blood", due to attacks by the Spanish. His body was not found a year after. His defeat meant a new reign over the savanna and the foundation of Bogotá on August 6, 1538

Main article: Spanish conquest of the Muisca

See also: Spanish conquest of the Chibchan Nations

Conquest and early colonial period

Quemuenchatocha
(† 1537)

Aquiminzaque
(† 1539)

Túpac Amaru
(† 1572)

Aquiminzaque, as successor of Quemuenchatocha, defeated in his home in Hunza, on August 20, 1537, was the last souvereign ruler of the Muisca and was decapitated by the Spanish, as would happen to Túpac Amaru of the Inca, 34 years later

The conquest of the Muisca was the heaviest of all four Spanish expeditions to the great American civilisations. More than 80 percent of the soldiers and horses that started the journey of a year to the northern Muisca Confederation did not survive it. Various settlements were founded by the Spanish between 1537 and 1539.

A delegation of more than 900 men left the tropical city of Santa Marta and went on a harsh expedition through the heartlands of Colombia in search of El Dorado and the civilisation that produced all this precious gold. The leader of the first and main expedition under Spanish flag was Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada, with his brother Hernán second in command. Several other soldiers were participating in the journey, who would later become encomenderos and taking part in the conquest of other parts of Colombia. Other contemporaneous expeditions into the unknown interior of the Andes, all searching for the mythical land of gold, were starting from later Venezuela, led by Bavarian and other German conquistadors and from the south, starting in the previously founded Kingdom of Quito in later Ecuador.

The first phase of the conquest was ended by the victory of the few conquistadors left over Tisquesusa, the last zipa of Bacatá, who fell and died after the battle at Funza, on the Bogotá savanna, April 20, 1537. The arrival of the Spanish conquerors was revealed to Tisquesusa by the mohan Popón, from the village of Ubaque. He told the Muisca ruler that foreigners were coming and Tisquesusa would die "bathing in his own blood". When Tisquesusa was informed of the advancing invasion of the Spanish soldiers, he sent a spy to Suesca to find out more about their army strength, weapons and with how many warriors they could be beaten. The zipa left the capital Bacatá and took shelter in Nemocón which directed the Spanish troops to there, during this march attacked by more than 600 Muisca warriors.

When Tisquesusa retreated in his fort in Cajicá he allegedly told his men he would not be able to combat against the strong Spanish army in possession of weapons that produced "thunder and lightning". He chose to return to Bacatá and ordered the capital to be evacuated, resulting in an abandoned site when the Spanish arrived. In search for the Muisca ruler the conquistadores went north to find Tisquesusa in the surroundings of Facatativá where they attacked him at night.

Tisquesusa was thrusted by the sword of one of De Quesada's soldiers but without knowing he was the zipa he let him go, after taking the expensive mantle of the ruler. Tisquesusa fled hurt into the mountains and died of his wounds there. His body was only discovered a year later because of the black vultures circling over it.

When Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada found out the caciques were conspiring against him, he sent out several expeditions of soldiers. His captain Juan de Céspedes went south to found Pasca on July 15, 1537. Hernán was sent north and Gonzalo himself went northeast, to search for the mythical Land of Gold El Dorado. There he did not find golden cities, but emeralds, the Muisca were extracting in Chivor and Somondoco. First foundation was Engativá, presently a locality of Bogotá, on May 22, 1537. Passing through Suba, Chía, Cajicá, Tocancipá, Gachancipá, Guatavita and Sesquilé, he arrived in Chocontá, founding the modern town on June 9. The journey went eastward into the Tenza Valley through Machetá, Tibiritá, Guateque, Sutatenza and Tenza, founded on San Juan; June 24. On the same day, Hernán founded Sutatausa. Gonzalo continued northwest through La Capilla and Úmbita. He arrived in Turmequé that he founded on July 20.

In August 1537 Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada entered the territories of the zaque, who ruled from Hunza. When the Spanish conquerors entered the outskirts of Hunza and found a hill with poles were bodies were dangling, they named it Cerro de la Horca ("Gallow Hill"). At the time of the conquest Quemuenchatocha was the zaque and he ordered his men to not submit to the European invaders or show them the way to his bohío. He sent messengers to the Spanish conquistadors with valuable peace offers. While this was happening, Quemuenchatocha had hidden his treasures from the Spanish. Hunza was located in a valley not as green as the Bogotá savanna. The advantage of the Spanish weaponry and the use of the horses quickly beat the Muisca warriors.

When Gonzalo arrived at the main bohío of Quemuenchatocha, he found the Muisca ruler sitting in his throne and surrounded by his closest companions. All men were dressed in expensive mantles and adorned with golden crowns. On August 20, 1537, the Spanish beat the zaque and the big and strong Muisca ruler was taken captive to Suesca. There he was tortured and the Spanish soldiers hoped he would reveal where he hid his precious properties. The absence of Quemuenchatocha paved the route for his nephew Aquiminzaque to succeed him as ruler of the northern Muisca, a practice common in Muisca traditions. When Quemuenchatocha was finally released from captivity in Suesca, he fled to Ramiriquí, where he died shortly after. The Spanish soldiers found gold, emeralds, silver, mantles and other valuables in Tunja. They were not able to take all the precious pieces and many were secretly taken away by the Muisca, using folded deer skins. They hid the valuables in nearby hills.

		Feb 1537	First contact @ Chipatá
		Mar–Apr 1537	Expedition into Muisca Confederation
		20 Apr 1537	Conquest of Funza upon zipa Tisquesusa
		May–Aug 1537	Expedition & conquest in Tenza Valley
		20 Aug 1537	Conquest Hunza, zaque Quemuenchatocha
		Early Sep 1537	Conquest Sugamuxi, iraca Sugamuxi
		Oct 1537 – Feb 1538	Other foundations on Altiplano & valleys
		6 Aug 1538	Foundation Santafé de Bogotá, by Gonzalo
		20 Aug 1538	B. of Tocarema; Spanish & zipa beat Panche
		6 Aug 1539	Foundation Tunja, by Gonzalo Suárez
		15 Dec 1539	Conquest Tundama, by Baltasar Maldonado
		Early 1540	Decapitation last zaque Aquiminzaque, Hernán

I – Soldiers of the main expedition – Santa Marta-Funza and on – February – April 20, 1537

Name leader in bold	Nationality	Years active	Encountered bold is conquered	Year of death	Image	Notes
Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada	Granadian	1536–39 1569–72	zipa zaque	1579
Juan Maldonado	Castilian	1536–39 1569–72	Muisca
Gonzalo Macías	Castilian	1536–39 1569–71	Muisca	1571~
Hernán Pérez de Quesada	Granadian	1536–39 1540–42	Muisca	1544
Gonzalo Suárez Rendón	Castilian	1536–39	zipa, zaque	1590
Martín Galeano	Castilian	1536–39 1540–45	Muisca	1554~
Lázaro Fonte	Castilian	1536–39 1540–42	Muisca	1542
Juan de Céspedes	Castilian	1525–43	Muisca	1573 or 1576
Juan de San Martín	Castilian	1536–39 1540–45	Muisca
Antonio de Lebrija	Castilian	1536–39	Muisca	1540
Ortún Velázquez de Velasco	Castilian	1536–39	Muisca	1584
Bartolomé Camacho Zambrano	Castilian	1536–39	Muisca
Antonio Díaz de Cardoso	Castilian	1536–39	Muisca
Pedro Fernández de Valenzuela	Castilian	1536–39	Muisca
640 conquistadors ~80%	mostly Castilian	April 1536 - April 1537	Diseases, jaguars, crocodiles, climate, various indigenous warfare	1536 1537

II & III – Soldiers of the expeditions De Belalcázar & Federmann (1535–1539)

Name leader in bold	Nationality	Years active	Encountered bold is conquered	Year of death	Image	Notes
Sebastián de Belalcázar	Castilian	1514–39	Muisca	1551
Baltasar Maldonado	Castilian	1543–52	Muisca	1552
Nikolaus Federmann	Bavarian	1535–39	Muisca	1542
Miguel Holguín y Figueroa	Castilian	1535–39	Muisca	1576>

I – 1 – Main expedition – inland and up from Chipatá to Funza – March – April 1537

Settlement bold is founded	Department	Date	Year	Altitude (m) urban centre	Notes	Map
Chipatá	Santander	8 March	1537	1820
Barbosa	Santander	March	1537	1610
Moniquirá	Boyacá	March	1537	1669
Santa Sofía	Boyacá	March	1537	2387
Sutamarchán	Boyacá	March	1537	1800
Ráquira	Boyacá	March	1537	2150
Simijaca	Cundinamarca	March	1537	2559
Susa	Cundinamarca	March	1537	2655
Fúquene	Cundinamarca	March	1537	2750
Guachetá	Cundinamarca	12 March	1537	2688
Lenguazaque	Cundinamarca	13 March	1537	2589
Cucunubá	Cundinamarca	13–14 March	1537	2590
Suesca	Cundinamarca	14 March	1537	2584
Nemocón	Cundinamarca	March	1537	2585
Zipaquirá	Cundinamarca	March	1537	2650
Cajicá	Cundinamarca	23 March	1537	2558
Chía	Cundinamarca	24 March	1537	2564
Cota	Cundinamarca	March–April	1537	2566
Funza	Cundinamarca	20 April	1537	2548

I – 2 – Gonzalo – Tenza Valley – Conquest of Hunza & Sugamuxi – May – August 20 & September, 1537

Settlement bold is founded	Department	Date	Year	Note(s)	Map
Engativá	Cundinamarca	22 May	1537
Suba	Cundinamarca	May	1537
Chía	Cundinamarca	May	1537
Cajicá	Cundinamarca	May	1537
Tocancipá	Cundinamarca	May–June	1537
Gachancipá	Cundinamarca	May–June	1537
Guatavita	Cundinamarca	May–June	1537
Sesquilé Lake Guatavita El Dorado	Cundinamarca	May–June	1537
Chocontá	Cundinamarca	9 June	1537
Machetá	Cundinamarca	June	1537
Tibiritá	Cundinamarca	June	1537
Guateque	Boyacá	June	1537
Sutatenza	Boyacá	June	1537
Tenza	Boyacá	24 June	1537
La Capilla	Boyacá	June–July	1537
Chivor	Boyacá	July	1537
Úmbita	Boyacá	July	1537
Turmequé	Boyacá	20 July	1537
Boyacá	Boyacá	8 August	1537
Ciénega	Boyacá	August	1537
Soracá	Boyacá	20 August ~15:00	1537
Hunza	Boyacá	20 August	1537

3 – Hernán – Foundation of Sutatausa – June 24, 1537

Name	Department	Date	Year	Note(s)	Map
Sutatausa	Cundinamarca	24 June	1537

4 – Juan de Céspedes – Southern savanna – 1537

Name	Department	Date	Year	Note(s)	Map
Pasca	Cundinamarca	15 July	1537
San Antonio del Tequendama	Cundinamarca		1539

5 – Juan de San Martín – 1537–1550

Name	Department	Date	Year	Note(s)	Map
El Colegio	Cundinamarca		1537
Cuítiva	Boyacá	19 January	1550

6 – Gonzalo et al. – Foundations of Bogotá and savanna

Name	Department	Date	Year	Note(s)	Map
Bojacá	Cundinamarca	16 October	1537
Somondoco	Boyacá	1 November	1537
Une	Cundinamarca	23 February	1538

7 – Gonzalo Suárez Rendón – Foundation of Tunja – August 6, 1539

Name	Department	Date	Year	Note(s)	Map
Tunja	Boyacá	6 August	1539

8 – Baltasar Maldonado – Conquest of Tundama – December 1539

Name	Department	Date	Year	Note(s)	Map
Duitama	Boyacá	15 December	1539

9 – Hernán & Lázaro Fonte a.o. – 1540

Name	Department	Date	Year	Note(s)	Map
Motavita	Boyacá		1540
Nevado del Sumapaz	Cundinamarca		1540

Early colonial period

Year(s)	Epidemic
1537	Tunja Province: ~250,000 est. inh.
1558<	no data
1558–60	smallpox, measles
1568–69	influenza
1587–90	influenza (or typhus)
1607	smallpox
1617–18	measles (after food shortages)
1621	smallpox
1633	typhus
1636	Tunja Province: ~50,000 est. inh. -80%

Not only the Spanish settlers had lost large percentages of their men due to warfare and diseases. The assessed corregimientos of the province of Tunja between 1537 and 1636 shows a decline of the total Muisca population between 65 and 85%. Epidemics were the main cause of the rapid reduction in population. Various have been reported and many undescribed in the first twenty years of contact.

After the foundation of Bogotá and the installation of the new dependency of the Spanish Crown, several strategies were important to the Spanish conquerors. The rich mineral resources of the Altiplano had to be extracted, the agriculture was quickly reformed, a system of encomiendas was installed and a main concern of the Spanish was the evangelisation of the Muisca. On October 9, 1549, Carlos V sent a royal letter to the New Kingdom directed at the priests about the necessity of population reduction of the Muisca. The indigenous people were working in the encomiendas which limited their religious conversion. To speed up the process of submittance to the Spanish reign, the mobility of the indigenous people was prohibited and the people gathered in resguardos. The formerly celebrated festivities in their religion disappeared. Specific times for the catechesis were controlled by laws, as executed in royal dictates in 1537, 1538 and 1551. The first bishop of Santafé, Juan de los Barrios, ordered to destroy the temples of the Muisca and replace them with Catholic churches. The last public religious ceremony of the Muisca religion was held in Ubaque on December 27, 1563. The second bishop of Santafé, Luis Zapata de Cárdenas, intensified the aggressive policies against the Muisca religion and the burnings of their sacred sites. This formed the final nail in the coffin of the former polytheistic society.

The transition to a mixed agriculture with Old World crops was remarkably fast, mainly to do with the fertility of the lands of the Altiplano permitting European crops to grow there, while in the more tropical areas the soil was not so much suited for the foreign crops. In 1555, the Muisca of Toca were growing European crops as wheat and barley and sugarcane was grown in other areas. The previously self-sustaining economy was quickly transformed into one based on intensive agriculture and mining that produced changes in the landscape and culture of the Muisca.

See also

• Maya civilization
• Sitio Sierra
• Spanish conquest of the Muisca, Muisca art

• Muisca economy, people
• Muisca architecture, astronomy, mummies, warfare, women

• Aztec Empire
• Inca Empire
• Muisca
• Tunjo

Bibliography and further reading

• Acosta, Joaquín (1848), Compendio histórico del descubrimiento y colonización de la Nueva Granada en el siglo décimo sexto [Historical overview of discovery and colonization of New Granada in the sixteenth century], Paris: Beau Press, pp. 1–460, OCLC 23030434, retrieved 2016-07-08
• Francis, John Michael (2002), "Población, enfermedad y cambio demográfico, 1537–1636. Demografía histórica de Tunja: Una mirada crítica", Fronteras de la Historia, 7, ICANH: 13–76, doi:10.22380/20274688.682
• Francis, John Michael (1993), "Muchas hipas, no minas" The Muiscas, a merchant society: Spanish misconceptions and demographic change (M.A.) (M.A.), University of Alberta, pp. 1–118
• Gamboa Mendoza, Jorge (2016), Los muiscas, grupos indígenas del Nuevo Reino de Granada. Una nueva propuesta sobre su organizacíon socio-política y su evolucíon en el siglo XVI – The Muisca, indigenous groups of the New Kingdom of Granada. A new proposal on their social-political organization and their evolution in the 16th century (video) (in Spanish), Museo del Oro, retrieved 2016-07-08
• Gamboa Mendoza, Jorge (2003), "El papel de la minería en la formación de la economía y la sociedad colonial del Nuevo Reino de Granada, siglos XVI-XVIII – The role of mining in the formation of the economy and colonial society of the New Kingdom of Granada, 16th–18th centuries" (PDF), Takwá (in Spanish): 1–24, retrieved 2016-07-08
• Groot de Mahecha, Ana María (2014) [2008], Sal y poder en el altiplano de Bogotá, 1537–1640 (in Spanish), Universidad Nacional de Colombia, pp. 1–174, ISBN 978-958-719-046-5
• Groot de Mahecha, Ana María (1992), Checua: Una secuencia cultural entre 8500 y 3000 años antes del presente - Checua: a cultural sequence between 8500 and 3000 years before present, Banco de la República, pp. 1–95, retrieved 2016-07-08
• Henderson, Hope; Ostler, Nicholas (2005), "Muisca settlement organization and chiefly authority at Suta, Valle de Leyva, Colombia: A critical appraisal of native concepts of house for studies of complex societies", Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, 24 (2), Elsevier: 148–178, doi:10.1016/j.jaa.2005.01.002, ISSN 0278-4165
• Izquierdo Peña, Manuel Arturo (2014), Calendario Muisca – Muisca calendar (video) (in Spanish), retrieved 2016-07-08
• Izquierdo Peña, Manuel Arturo (2009), The Muisca Calendar: An approximation to the timekeeping system of the ancient native people of the northeastern Andes of Colombia (PhD), Université de Montréal, pp. 1–170, arXiv:0812.0574
• Kruschek, Michael H. (2003), The evolution of the Bogotá chiefdom: A household view (PhD) (PDF) (PhD), University of Pittsburgh, pp. 1–271, retrieved 2016-07-08
• Langebaek Rueda, Carl Henrik (2005a), "La élite no siempre piensa lo mismo – The elite does not always think the same", Muiscas: representaciones, cartografías y etnopolíticas de la memoria (in Spanish), Universidad La Javeriana, pp. 180–199, ISBN 958-683-643-6
• Langebaek Rueda, Carl Henrik (2005b), "Fiestas y caciques muiscas en el Infiernito, Colombia: un análisis de la relación entre festejos y organización política - Festivities and Muisca caciques in El Infiernito, Colombia: an analysis of the relation between celebrations and political organisation", Boletín de Arqueología (in Spanish), 9, PUCP: 281–295, ISSN 1029-2004
• Martínez Martín, A. F.; Manrique Corredor, E. J. (2014), "Alimentación prehispánica y transformaciones tras la conquista europea del altiplano cundiboyacense, Colombia" [Pre-Columbian Food and Transformations after European Conquest of Cundiboyacense High Plateau, Colombia], Revista Virtual Universidad Católica del Norte (in Spanish), 41, Universidad Católica del Norte: 96–111, ISSN 0124-5821, retrieved 2018-07-28
• Ocampo López, Javier (2013), Mitos y leyendas indígenas de Colombia – Indigenous myths and legends of Colombia (in Spanish), Bogotá, Colombia: Plaza & Janes Editores Colombia S.A., ISBN 978-958-14-1416-1
• Ocampo López, Javier (2007), Grandes culturas indígenas de América - Great indigenous cultures of the Americas (in Spanish), Bogotá, Colombia: Plaza & Janes Editores Colombia S.A., pp. 1–238, ISBN 978-958-14-0368-4
• Paepe, Paul de; Cardale de Schrimpff, Marianne (1990), "Resultados de un estodio petrológico de cerámicas del Periodo Herrera provenientes de la Sabana de Bogotá y sus implicaciones arqueológicas – Results of a petrological study of ceramics form the Herrera Period coming from the Bogotá savanna and its archaeological implications", Boletín Museo del Oro (in Spanish), Museo del Oro: 99–119, retrieved 2016-07-08
• Cardale de Schrimpff, Marianne (1985), En busca de los primeros agricultores del Altiplano Cundiboyacense – Searching for the first farmers of the Altiplano Cundiboyacense (PDF) (in Spanish), Bogotá, Colombia: Banco de la República, pp. 99–125, retrieved 2016-07-08
• Trimborn, Hermann (2005), "La organización del poder público en las culturas soberanas de los chibchas – The public power organisation in the common cultures of the Chibchas", Muiscas: representaciones, cartografías y etnopolíticas de la memoria (in Spanish), Universidad La Javeriana, pp. 298–314, ISBN 958-683-643-6
• Zerda, Liborio (1947) [1883], El Dorado (PDF) (in Spanish), retrieved 2016-07-08

Spanish chroniclers

• "Epítome de la conquista del Nuevo Reino de Granada", Boletín Cultural y Bibliográfico, 16 (3), Banco de la República: 81–97, 1979 [1889 (1539/1548-1559?)], retrieved 2016-11-24
• Jiménez de Quesada, Gonzalo (1576), Memoria de los descubridores, que entraron conmigo a descubrir y conquistar el Reino de Granada (in Spanish), retrieved 2016-07-08
• De Castellanos, Juan (1857) [1589], Elegías de varones ilustres de Indias (in Spanish), pp. 1–567, retrieved 2016-07-08
• De Lugo, Bernardo (1619), Gramática en la lengua general del Nuevo Reyno, llamada mosca – Grammar in the general language of the New Kingdom, called Mosca (Muisca) (in Spanish), Madrid, Spain, pp. 1–162, retrieved 2016-07-08
• Simón, Pedro (1892) [1626], Noticias historiales de las conquistas de Tierra Firme en las Indias occidentales (1882–92) vol.1–5 (in Spanish), retrieved 2016-07-08
• Rodríguez Freyle, Juan; Achury Valenzuela, Darío (1979) [1859 (1638)], El Carnero – Conquista i descubrimiento del nuevo reino de Granada de las Indias Occidentales del mar oceano, i fundacion de la ciudad de Santa Fe de Bogota (PDF) (in Spanish), Fundacion Biblioteca Ayacuch, pp. 1–598, retrieved 2016-11-21
• Fernández de Piedrahita, Lucas (1688), Historia general de las conquistas del Nuevo Reino de Granada (in Spanish), retrieved 2016-07-08