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Maslow's hierarchy of needs

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Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is a conceptualisation of the needs (or goals) that motivate human behaviour, which was proposed by the American psychologist Abraham Maslow.[1][2] According to Maslow’s original formulation, there are five sets of basic needs that are related to each other in a hierarchy of prepotency (or strength). Typically, the hierarchy is depicted in the form of a pyramid although Maslow was not himself responsible for the iconic diagram.[3] The pyramid begins at the bottom with physiological needs (the most prepotent of all) and culminates at the top with self-actualization needs. In his later writings, Maslow added a sixth level of ‘meta-needs’ and metamotivation.[4][5]

Simplified hierarchy of needs

The hierarchy of needs remains a popular framework and tool in higher education,[6] management training,[7] sociology research, healthcare,[8][9] counselling[10] and social work.[11] However, although widely used and researched, the hierarchy of needs has been criticized for its lack of conclusive supporting evidence and its validity remains contested.[12][13][14][15]

Historical development

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Maslow's hierarchy of needs is often represented as a pyramid, with the more basic needs at the bottom.[1][16]

Maslow's hierarchy of needs is an idea in psychology proposed by American psychologist Abraham Maslow in his 1943 paper "A Theory of Human Motivation" in the journal Psychological Review.[1] The theory is a classification system intended to reflect the universal needs of society as its base, then proceeding to more acquired emotions.[17] The hierarchy of needs is split between deficiency needs and growth needs, with two key themes involved within the theory being individualism and the prioritization of needs.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs is often portrayed in the shape of a pyramid, with the largest, most fundamental needs at the bottom, and the need for self-actualization and transcendence at the top. In other words, the idea is that individuals' most basic needs must be met before they become motivated to achieve higher-level needs.[18] While the theory is usually shown as a pyramid in illustrations, Maslow himself never created a pyramid to represent the hierarchy of needs.[19][3][20]

The most fundamental four layers of the pyramid contain what Maslow called "deficiency needs" or "d-needs": esteem, friendship and love, security, and physical needs. If these "deficiency needs" are not met – except for the most fundamental (physiological) need – there may not be a physical indication, but the individual will feel anxious and tense. Deprivation is what causes deficiency, so when one has unmet needs, this motivates them to fulfill what they are being denied.[16] Maslow's idea suggests that the most basic level of needs must be met before the individual will strongly desire (or focus motivation upon) the secondary or higher-level needs. Maslow also coined the term "metamotivation" to describe the motivation of people who go beyond the scope of basic needs and strive for constant betterment.[5]

The human brain is a complex system and has parallel processes running at the same time, thus many different motivations from various levels of Maslow's hierarchy can occur at the same time. Maslow spoke clearly about these levels and their satisfaction in terms such as "relative", "general", and "primarily". Instead of stating that the individual focuses on a certain need at any given time, Maslow stated that a certain need "dominates" the human organism.[2] Thus Maslow acknowledged the likelihood that the different levels of motivation could occur at any time in the human mind, but he focused on identifying the basic types of motivation and the order in which they would tend to be met.[21] In addition to his anthropological studies, Maslow drew on animal data that "studied and observed monkeys [...] noticing their unusual pattern of behavior that addressed priorities based on individual needs".[11]

Alternative illustrations of hierarchy

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Alternative illustration of hierarchy of needs with overlapping needs

In contrast to the well-known pyramid, a number of alternative schematic illustrations of the hierachy of needs have been developed. One of the earliest, in 1962, shows a more dynamic hierarchy in terms of 'waves' of different needs overlapping at the same time.[22] As illustrated, the peak of an earlier main set of needs must be passed before the next 'higher' need can begin to assume a dominant role.

Other schematic illustrations of the hierarchy uses overlapping triangles to depict the interaction of the different needs. One such updated hierarchy proposes that self-actualization is removed from its privileged place atop the pyramid because it is largely subsumed within status (esteem) and mating-related motives in the new framework.[23]

Needs

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Physiological needs

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Physiological needs are the base of the hierarchy. These needs are the biological component for human survival. According to Maslow's hierarchy of needs, physiological needs are factored into internal motivation. According to Maslow's theory, humans are compelled to satisfy physiological needs first to pursue higher levels of intrinsic satisfaction.[1] To advance higher-level needs in Maslow's hierarchy, physiological needs must be met first. This means that if a person is struggling to meet their physiological needs, they are unwilling to seek safety, belonging, esteem, and self-actualization on their own.

Physiological needs include: Air, Water, Food, Heat, Clothes, Reproduction, Shelter[16] and Sleep. Many of these physiological needs must be met for the human body to remain in homeostasis. Air, for example, is a physiological need; a human being requires air more urgently than higher-level needs, such as a sense of social belonging. Physiological needs are critical to "meet the very basic essentials of life".[11] This allows for cravings such as hunger and thirst to be satisfied and not disrupt the regulation of the body.

Safety needs

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Once a person's physiological needs are satisfied, their safety needs take precedence and dominate behavior. In the absence of physical safety – due to war, natural disaster, family violence, childhood abuse, etc. and/or in the absence of economic safety – (due to an economic crisis and lack of work opportunities) these safety needs manifest themselves in ways such as a preference for job security, grievance procedures for protecting the individual from unilateral authority, savings accounts, insurance policies, disability accommodations, etc. This level is more likely to predominate in children as they generally have a greater need to feel safe – especially children who have disabilities.[24] Adults are also impacted by this, typically in economic matters; "adults are not immune to the need of safety".[11] It includes shelter, job security, health, and safe environments. If a person does not feel safe in an environment, they will seek safety before attempting to meet any higher level of survival. This is why the "goal of consistently meeting the need for safety is to have stability in one's life",[11] stability brings back the concept of homeostasis for humans which our bodies need.

Safety needs include:

Love and social needs

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After physiological and safety needs are fulfilled, the third level of human needs is interpersonal and involves feelings of belongingness. According to Maslow, humans possess an effective need for a sense of belonging and acceptance among social groups, regardless of whether these groups are large or small; being a part of a group is crucial, regardless if it is work, sports, friends or family.[16] The sense of belongingness is "being comfortable with and connection to others that results from receiving acceptance, respect, and love."[24] For example, some large social groups may include clubs, co-workers, religious groups, professional organizations, sports teams, gangs or online communities. Some examples of small social connections include family members, intimate partners, mentors, colleagues, and confidants. Humans need to love and be loved – both sexually and non-sexually – by others according to Maslow.[1] Many people become susceptible to loneliness, social anxiety, and clinical depression in the absence of this love or belonging element. This need is especially strong in childhood and it can override the need for safety as witnessed in children who cling to abusive parents. Deficiencies due to hospitalism, neglect, shunning, ostracism, etc. can adversely affect the individual's ability to form and maintain emotionally significant relationships in general. Mental health can be a huge factor when it comes to an individual's needs and development. When an individual's needs are not met, it can cause depression during adolescence. When an individual grows up in a higher-income family, it is much more likely that they will have a lower rate of depression. This is because all of their basic needs are met. Studies have shown that when a family goes through financial stress for a prolonged time, depression rates are higher, not only because their basic needs are not being met, but because this stress strains the parent-child relationship. The parent(s) is stressed about providing for their children, and they are also likely to spend less time at home because they are working more to make more money and provide for their family.[25]

Social belonging needs include:

In certain situations, the need for belonging may overcome the physiological and security needs, depending on the strength of the peer pressure. In contrast, for some individuals, the need for self-esteem is more important than the need for belonging; and for others, the need for creative fulfillment may supersede even the most basic needs.[23]

Esteem needs

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Esteem is the respect, and admiration of a person, but also "self-respect and respect from others".[24] Most people need stable esteem, meaning that which is soundly based on real capacity or achievement. Maslow noted two versions of esteem needs. The "lower" version of esteem is the need for respect from others and may include a need for status, recognition, fame, prestige, and attention. The "higher" version of esteem is the need for self-respect, and can include a need for strength, competence,[17] mastery, self-confidence, independence, and freedom. This "higher" version takes guidelines, the "hierarchies are interrelated rather than sharply separated".[2] This means that esteem and the subsequent levels are not strictly separated; instead, the levels are closely related.

Esteem comes from day-to-day experiences which provide a learning opportunity that allows us to discover ourselves. This is incredibly important for children, which is why giving them "the opportunity to discover they are competent and capable learners"[24] is crucial. To boost this, adults must provide opportunities for children to have successful and positive experiences to give children a greater "sense of self".[24] Adults, especially parents and educators must create and ensure an environment for children that is supportive and provides them with opportunities that "helps children see themselves as respectable, capable individuals". It can also be found that "Maslow indicated that the need for respect or reputation is most important for children ... and precedes real self-esteem or dignity",[16] which reflects the two aspects of esteem: for oneself and others.

Cognitive needs

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Main article: Need for cognition

It has been suggested that Maslow's hierarchy of needs can be extended after esteem needs into two more categories: cognitive needs and aesthetic needs. Cognitive needs crave meaning, information, comprehension and curiosity – this creates a will to learn and attain knowledge.[16]  From an educational viewpoint, Maslow wanted humans to have intrinsic motivation to become educated people. People have cognitive needs such as creativity, foresight, curiosity, and meaning. Individuals who enjoy activities that require deliberation and brainstorming have a greater need for cognition. Individuals who are unmotivated to participate in the activity, on the other hand, have a low demand for cognitive abilities.[26]

Aesthetic needs

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After reaching one's cognitive needs, it would progress to aesthetic needs to beautify one's life. This would consist of having the ability to appreciate the beauty within the world around one's self, on a day-to-day basis.[16] According to Maslow's theories, to progress toward Self-Actualization, humans require beautiful imagery or novel and aesthetically pleasing experiences. Humans must immerse themselves in nature's splendor while paying close attention to their surroundings and observing them in order to extract the world's beauty. One would accomplish this by making their environment pleasant to look at or be around. They might discover personal style choices that they feel represent them and make their environment a place that they fit well into. This higher level of need to connect with nature results in a sense of intimacy with nature and all that is endearing.[16] Aesthetic needs also relate to beautifying oneself. This would consist of improving one's physical appearance to ensure its beauty to balance the rest of the body.[16] This is done by making and finding ways one wants to dress and express oneself through personal beauty and grooming standards and ideas.

Self-actualization

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Main article: Self-actualization

"What a man can be, he must be.[27] This quotation forms the basis of the perceived need for self-actualization. This level of need refers to the realization of one's full potential. Maslow describes this as the desire to accomplish everything that one can, to become the most that one can be.[28] People may have a strong, particular desire to become an ideal parent, succeed athletically, or create paintings, pictures, or inventions.[29] To understand this level of need, a person must not only succeed in the previous needs but master them. Self-actualization can be described as a value-based system when discussing its role in motivation. Self-actualization is understood as the goal or explicit motive, and the previous stages in Maslow's hierarchy fall in line to become the step-by-step process by which self-actualization is achievable; an explicit motive is the objective of a reward-based system that is used to intrinsically drive the completion of certain values or goals.[17] Individuals who are motivated to pursue this goal seek and understand how their needs, relationships, and sense of self are expressed through their behavior. Self-actualization needs include:[17]

  • Partner acquisition
  • Parenting
  • Utilizing and developing talents and abilities
  • Pursuing goals

Transcendence needs

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Main articles: Transcendence (philosophy), Transcendence (religion), and Self-transcendence

Maslow later subdivided the triangle's top to include self-transcendence, also known as spiritual needs. Spiritual needs differ from other types of needs in that they can be met on multiple levels. When this need is met, it produces feelings of integrity and raises things to a higher plane of existence.[30] In his later years, Maslow explored a further dimension of motivation, while criticizing his original vision of self-actualization.[31][32][4][33] Maslow tells us that by transcending you have a set of roots in your current culture but you are able to look over it as well and see other viewpoints and ideas.[34] By these later ideas, one finds the fullest realization in giving oneself to something beyond oneself—for example, in altruism or spirituality. He equated this with the desire to reach the infinite.[35] "Transcendence refers to the very highest and most inclusive or holistic levels of human consciousness, behaving and relating, as ends rather than means, to oneself, to significant others, to human beings in general, to other species, to nature, and to the cosmos."[36]

Criticism

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Blackfoot influence

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Maslow's early (1938) anthropological research included a fieldtrip to the Blackfoot people (Siksika Nation) in southern Alberta, Canada. Based on his observations of their peaceful and cooperative way of life (in contrast to American society), Maslow concluded that human destructiveness and aggression is largely culturally determined and “most probably a secondary, reactive consequence of thwarting of or threat to the basic human needs”.[2] However, claims have been made that Maslow had failed to acknowledge the influence of the Blackfoot philosophy in developing the hierarchy of needs.[37][38][39]

According to Kaufman, while acknowledging that Maslow learned much from the Blackfoot people, “there is nothing in these writings to suggest he borrowed or stole ideas for his hierarchy of needs”.[3] Without wishing to discredit Maslow, Blackfoot elders and scholars have argued that Maslow did not really understand the Blackfoot philosophy. "It is not that Maslow got the hierarchy wrong or upside down, it is rather that he did not understand the circular nature in which all beings in Siksika society are interconnected and integrated. They surround each other and needs are met through these connections".[40]

Self-actualizing people

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Maslow studied people such as Albert Einstein, Jane Addams, Eleanor Roosevelt, and Baruch Spinoza, rather than mentally ill or neurotic people, writing that "the study of crippled, stunted, immature, and unhealthy specimens can yield only a cripple psychology and a cripple philosophy".[41]<[42]

Ranking

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Global ranking

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In a 1976 review of Maslow's hierarchy of needs, little evidence was found for the specific ranking of needs that Maslow described or for the existence of a definite hierarchy at all.[43] This refutation was claimed to be supported by the majority of longitudinal data and cross-sectional studies at the time, with the limited support for Maslow's hierarchy criticized due to poor measurement criteria and selection of control groups.[43]

In 1984, the order in which the hierarchy is arranged was criticized as being ethnocentric by Geert Hofstede.[44] In turn, Hofstede's work was criticized by others.[45] Maslow's hierarchy of needs was argued as failing to illustrate and expand upon the difference between the social and intellectual needs of those raised in individualistic societies and those raised in collectivist societies. The needs and drives of those in individualistic societies tend to be more self-centered than those in collectivist societies, focusing on the improvement of the self, with self-actualization being the apex of self-improvement. In collectivist societies, the needs of acceptance and community will outweigh the needs for freedom and individuality.[46]

Criticisms towards the theory have also been expressed on the lack of consideration towards individualism and collectivism in the context of spirituality.[47]

Sex ranking

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The position and value of sex within Maslow's hierarchy have been a source of criticism. Maslow's hierarchy places sex in the physiological needs category, alongside food and breathing. Some critics argue that this placement of sex neglects the emotional, familial, and evolutionary implications of sex within the community, although others point out that this critique could apply to all of the basic needs. However, Maslow himself acknowledged that the satisfaction of sexual desire was likely linked to other social motives as well. Furthermore, it is recognized that physiological needs such as sex and hunger can be related to higher-order motivations.[23]

Cultural and individual variations

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Although recent research appears to validate the existence of universal human needs, as well as shared ordering of the way in which people seek and satisfy needs, the exact hierarchy proposed by Maslow is called into question.[14][15] The most common criticism is the expectation that different individuals, with similar backgrounds and at similar junctures in their respective lives, when faced with the same situation, would end up taking the same decision. Instead of that, a common observation is that humans are driven by a unique set of motivations, and their behavior cannot be reliably predicted based on the Maslowian principles.

The classification of the higher-order (self-esteem and self-actualization) and lower-order (physiological, safety, and love) needs is not universal and may vary across cultures due to individual differences and availability of resources in the region or geopolitical entity/country.

In a 1997 study,[48] exploratory factor analysis (EFA) of a thirteen-item scale showed there were two particularly important levels of needs in the US during the peacetime of 1993 to 1994: survival (physiological and safety) and psychological (love, self-esteem, and self-actualization). In 1991, a retrospective peacetime measure was established and collected during the Persian Gulf War, and US citizens were asked to recall the importance of needs from the previous year. Once again, only two levels of needs were identified; therefore, people have the ability and competence to recall and estimate the importance of needs. For citizens in the Middle East (Egypt and Saudi Arabia), three levels of needs regarding importance and satisfaction surfaced during the 1990 retrospective peacetime. These three levels were completely different from those of US citizens.

Changes regarding the importance and satisfaction of needs from the retrospective peacetime to wartime due to stress varied significantly across cultures (the US vs. the Middle East). For the US citizens, there was only one level of needs, since all needs were considered equally important. With regards to satisfaction of needs during the war, in the US there were three levels: physiological needs, safety needs, and psychological needs (social, self-esteem, and self-actualization). During the war, the satisfaction of physiological needs and safety needs were separated into two independent needs, while during peacetime, they were combined as one. For the people of the Middle East, the satisfaction of needs changed from three levels to two during wartime.[49][50]

A study of the ordering of needs in Asia found differences between the ordering of lower and higher order needs. For instance, community (related to belongingness and considered a lower order need in Maslow's hierarchy) was found to be the highest order need across Asia, followed closely by self-acceptance and growth.[51]

A 1981 study looked at how Maslow's hierarchy might vary across age groups.[52] A survey asked participants of varying ages to rate a set number of statements from most important to least important. The researchers found that children had higher physical need scores than the other groups, the love need emerged from childhood to young adulthood, the esteem need was highest among the adolescent group, young adults had the highest self-actualization level, and old age had the highest level of security, it was needed across all levels comparably. The authors argued that this suggested Maslow's hierarchy may be limited as a theory for developmental sequence since the sequence of the love need and the self-esteem need should be reversed according to age.

The hierarchy of needs has been criticized from an Islamic point of view.[47]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ a b c d e Maslow 1943.
  2. ^ a b c d Maslow 1954.
  3. ^ a b c Kaufman 2019.
  4. ^ a b Maslow 1971.
  5. ^ a b Goble 1971.
  6. ^ Freitas, Frances Anne; Leonard, Lora J. (January 2011). "Maslow's hierarchy of needs and student academic success". Teaching and Learning in Nursing. 6 (1): 9–13. doi:10.1016/j.teln.2010.07.004.
  7. ^ Kremer, William; Hammond, Claudia (August 31, 2013). "Abraham Maslow and the pyramid that beguiled business". World Service. BBC News Magazine. Archived from the original on July 16, 2018. Retrieved September 1, 2013. Abraham Maslow and the Hierarchy of Needs was broadcast on Mind Changers on Radio 4 and Health Check on the BBC World Service
  8. ^ Dames, Shannon (December 9, 2021). Root Strength E-Book: A Health and Care Professionals Guide to Minimizing Stress and Maximizing Thriving. Elsevier Health Sciences. ISBN 978-0-323-77870-1.
  9. ^ Wills & McEwen 2014.
  10. ^ Colledge, Ray (2002), "Maslow's theory of human motivation", Mastering Counselling Theory, London: Macmillan Education UK, pp. 129–138, doi:10.1007/978-0-230-62957-8_10, ISBN 978-0-333-92243-9, retrieved April 30, 2022
  11. ^ a b c d e Poston, Bob (August 2009). "An Exercise in Personal Exploration: Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs" (PDF). The Surgical Technologist. 308. Association of Surgical Technologists: 348.
  12. ^ Lester, David (August 2013). "Measuring Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs". Psychological Reports. 113 (1): 15–17. doi:10.2466/02.20.pr0.113x16z1. PMID 24340796. S2CID 35870176.
  13. ^ Fallatah, Rodwan Hashim Mohammed; Syed, Jawad (November 30, 2017), "A Critical Review of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs", Employee Motivation in Saudi Arabia, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 19–59, doi:10.1007/978-3-319-67741-5_2, ISBN 978-3-319-67740-8, retrieved April 30, 2022
  14. ^ a b Villarica, H. (August 17, 2011). "Maslow 2.0: A new and improved recipe for happiness". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on November 21, 2011. Retrieved March 9, 2017.
  15. ^ a b Tay, L.; Diener, E. (2011). "Needs and subjective well-being around the world". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 101 (2): 354–365. doi:10.1037/a0023779. PMID 21688922.
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  17. ^ a b c d Deckers, Lambert (2018). Motivation: Biological, Psychological, and Environmental. Routledge Press. ISBN 9781138036338.
  18. ^ Steere, B. F. (1988). Becoming an effective classroom manager: A resource for teachers. Albany, NY: SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-88706-620-7. Archived from the original on June 26, 2021. Retrieved November 6, 2020.
  19. ^ Eaton 2012.
  20. ^ Bridgman, Todd; Cummings, Stephen; Ballard, John (March 2019). "Who Built Maslow's Pyramid? A History of the Creation of Management Studies' Most Famous Symbol and Its Implications for Management Education". Academy of Management Learning & Education. 18 (1): 81–98. doi:10.5465/amle.2017.0351. S2CID 150163519.
  21. ^ "Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs in Education". Education Library. February 6, 2020. Archived from the original on February 6, 2020. Retrieved February 6, 2020.
  22. ^ Krech, Crutchfield & Ballachey 1962, p. 77.
  23. ^ a b c Kenrick et al. 2010.
  24. ^ a b c d e Dodge, Diane Trister; Colker, Laura J.; Heroman, Cate (2002). "Theory and Research Behind The Creative Curriculum". The Creative Curriculum for Preschool (PDF) (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Teaching Strategies. pp. 2–3. ISBN 978-1879537439. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 10, 2020 – via Jeanette Fanconi, Modesto Junior College.
  25. ^ Crandall, Aliceann; Powell, Elizabeth A.; Bradford, Grace C.; Magnusson, Brianna M.; Hanson, Carl L.; Barnes, Michael D.; Novilla, M. Lelinneth B.; Bean, Roy A. (2020). "Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs as a Framework for Understanding Adolescent Depressive Symptoms over Time". Journal of Child and Family Studies. 29 (2): 273–281. doi:10.1007/s10826-019-01577-4. S2CID 204353035.
  26. ^ "Need for Cognition". Research and custom writing services. Archived from the original on June 28, 2021. Retrieved August 1, 2021.
  27. ^ Maslow 1954, p. 91.
  28. ^ Maslow 1954, p. 92.
  29. ^ Maslow 1954, p. 93.
  30. ^ Gautum, Sandeep (December 14, 2007). "Maslow's eight basic needs and the eight stage developmental model" (Blog). The Mouse Trap. Archived from the original on August 1, 2021. Retrieved August 1, 2021.
  31. ^ Maslow, Abraham H. (1996). "Critique of self-actualization theory". In Hoffman, Edward (ed.). Future visions: The unpublished papers of Abraham Maslow. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. pp. 26–32. ISBN 978-0761900511.
  32. ^ Maslow, Abraham H. (1969). "The farther reaches of human nature". Journal of Transpersonal Psychology. 1 (1): 1–9.
  33. ^ Koltko-Rivera, Mark E. (2006). "Rediscovering the Later Version of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: Self-Transcendence and Opportunities for Theory, Research, and Unification" (PDF). Review of General Psychology. 10 (4): 302–317. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.10.4.302. S2CID 16046903. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 25, 2016. Retrieved December 24, 2014.
  34. ^ Maslow, Abraham (1969). "Various Meanings of Transcendence" (PDF). Journal of Transpersonal Psychology: 56–66.
  35. ^ Garcia-Romeu, Albert (2010). "Self-transcendence as a measurable transpersonal construct" (PDF). Journal of Transpersonal Psychology. 421: 26–47. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 14, 2021. Retrieved May 25, 2020.
  36. ^ Maslow 1971, p. 269.
  37. ^ Coon, D. (2006) Abraham H. Maslow: Reconnaissance for Eupsychia. In D.A. Dewsbury, L.T. Benjamin Jr. and M. Wertheimer (Eds). Portraits of Pioneers in Psychology, Vol. 6 (pp. 255–273). Washington, D.C. & Mahwah, N.J.: American Psychological Association and Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
  38. ^ Brown, S (2014) Transformation beyond greed: Native self-actualization. Sidney Stone Brown.
  39. ^ Taylor, Steve (March 22, 2019). "Original Influences |" (Blog). Psychology Today. Archived from the original on March 13, 2023. Retrieved August 21, 2021.
  40. ^ Bear Chief - Oom Kapisi, E.R. Choate, P. and Lindstrom, G. (2022) Reconsidering Maslow and the hierarchy of needs from a First Nations’ perspective. Aotearoa New Zealand Social Work, 34(2), 30–41. https://doi.org/10.11157/anzswj-vol34iss2id959.
  41. ^ Mittelman, Willard (1991). "Maslow's Study of Self-Actualization: A Reinterpretation". Journal of Humanistic Psychology. 31 (1): 114–135. doi:10.1177/0022167891311010. S2CID 144849415.
  42. ^ Maslow 1954, p. 200.
  43. ^ a b Wahba, M. A.; Bridwell, L. G. (1976). "Maslow reconsidered: A review of research on the need hierarchy theory". Organizational Behavior and Human Performance. 15 (2): 212–240. doi:10.1016/0030-5073(76)90038-6.
  44. ^ Hofstede, G. (1984). "The cultural relativity of the quality of life concept" (PDF). Academy of Management Review. 9 (3): 389–398. doi:10.5465/amr.1984.4279653. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 12, 2014.
  45. ^ Jones, M. (June 28, 2007). "Hofstede – Culturally questionable?". Faculty of Commerce – Papers (Archive). Archived from the original on August 3, 2020. Retrieved May 22, 2020.
  46. ^ Cianci, R.; Gambrel, P. A. (2003). "Maslow's hierarchy of needs: Does it apply in a collectivist culture". Journal of Applied Management and Entrepreneurship. 8 (2): 143–161.
  47. ^ a b Bouzenita, Anke Iman; Boulanouar, Aisha Wood (2016). "Maslow's hierarchy of needs: An Islamic critique". Intellectual Discourse. 24.
  48. ^ Tang, T. L.; West, W. B. (1997). "The importance of human needs during peacetime, retrospective peacetime, and the Persian Gulf War". International Journal of Stress Management. 4 (1). American Psychological Association on behalf of the International Stress Management Association: 47–62. doi:10.1007/BF02766072. S2CID 68311297.
  49. ^ Tang, T. L.; Ibrahim, A. H. (1998). "Importance of human needs during retrospective peacetime and the Persian Gulf War: Mid-eastern employees". International Journal of Stress Management. 5 (1). American Psychological Association on behalf of the International Stress Management Association: 25–37. doi:10.1023/A:1022902803386. S2CID 141983215.
  50. ^ Tang, T. L.; Ibrahim, A. H.; West, W. B. (2002). "Effects of war-related stress on the satisfaction of human needs: The United States and the Middle East". International Journal of Management Theory and Practices. 3 (1): 35–53.
  51. ^ Monnot, M. J.; Beehr, T. A. (2022). "The Good Life Versus the "Goods Life": An Investigation of Goal Contents Theory and Employee Subjective Well-Being Across Asian Countries". Journal of Happiness Studies. 23 (3): Dec 15, 1244. doi:10.1007/s10902-021-00447-5. S2CID 239678199.
  52. ^ Goebel, B. L.; Brown, D. R. (1981). "Age differences in motivation related to Maslow's need hierarchy". Developmental Psychology. 17 (6): 809–815. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.17.6.809.

References

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Further reading

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