This is a list of Madagascar and Indian Ocean Island animals extinct in the Holocene that covers extinctions from the Holocene epoch, a geologic epoch that began about 11,650 years before present (about 9700 BCE)[a] and continues to the present day.[1]
Numerous animal species have disappeared from Madagascar and the Indian Ocean islands as part of the ongoing Holocene extinction, driven by human activity. The famous dodo (Raphus cucullatus), last seen in 1662, was endemic to Mauritius.[3] All 17 extinct lemurs were giant lemurs larger than the extant lemurs.
The subfossil remains of certain avian orders are scarce on Réunion. Consequently, a few of the extinct birds from Réunion are hypothetical species. They almost certainly existed but lack supporting subfossil remains.[4]
Described from three mandibles found in a cave, 10,000 years old or younger.[13] The two other extant species of the genus Triaenops in Madagascar were later moved to Paratriaenops.[14]
Most recent remains were dated to 210 CE.[17] The species, or a folk memory may have survived for longer: Étienne de Flacourt wrote in 1658 that a leopard-like carnivore more powerful than the extant fossa, capable of killing calves and humans, could be found in remote mountain areas.[18][19]Malagasy people also distinguish two fossa species: the red fossa (fosa mena) and the larger black fossa (fosa mainty).[18]
Most recent remains, of questionable provenance, were dated to 1670-1950 CE; others to 414-262 BCE. A claimed witness from Belo sur Mer described a hippopotamus and imitated its call in 1976.[8]
Most recent remains dated to 1040-1380 CE.[21] A 2018 study moved the largest elephant bird specimens to the genus Vorombe,[22] but a 2023 genetic study regarded Vorombe as synonymous with Aepyornis maximus.[23]
Occurred alongside the smaller Malagasy shelduck until possibly the 14th or 15th centuries CE, when it disappeared due to hunting and aridification.[4]
Hunted to extinction in the Mascarene Islands, disappearing from Réunion by 1730 and from Mauritius by 1770. Only stragglers were present in Rodrigues. The Mauritius "géant" mentioned by François Leguat in 1708 was probably a flamingo and not an endemic bird species as sometimes considered.[4] Survives in Madagascar.[26]
Last recorded in the 1920s. Some authors don't consider it different from the Madagascar subspecies. The Assumption population likely disappeared as a result of extensive guano mining. Afterwards, the island was colonized by the Aldabra subspecies C. t. insularis.[21]
Known from subfossil remains larger than any other coua. It was possibly also the heaviest and completely terrestrial, which would have made it vulnerable to hunting.[21]
Last collected in 1834. Reports from 1930 are unfounded. The species likely disappeared as a result of extensive deforestation, though hunting and predation by introduced rats could also have contributed.[28]
Last confirmed individual was killed in 1826, though it might have survived in remote areas until 1837. As the species persisted for two centuries after settlement, it probably wasn't driven to extinction by introduced predators, but mainly because of deforestation.[21]
Only known from a single, subfossil tarsometatarsus and possibly a femur. It was larger than any other Alectroenas species except the Mauritian one. Probably disappeared before Leguat arrived to the island in the 1690s.[21]
Last reported in 1671-1672.[21] Considered a hypothetical species: it almost certainly existed but lacks supporting fossil remains.[4] Probably disappeared due to hunting and predation by introduced cats.[21]
Described from subfossil remains, it is believed to have become extinct by 1730 due to hunting, predation by introduced black rats, and deforestation.[21] The species has been questioned due to the material being scarce and not completely distinguishable from rock doves[29] introduced to the island in 1639.[30] However, early historical accounts mention the existence of pigeons that were caught with ease.[21]
Similar to the Malagasy turtle dove but more terrestrial, with more robust legs and smaller wings. Disappeared by 1730 due to hunting, predation by introduced mammals, and deforestation. The Madagascar turtle dove was introduced in 1770 and mistakenly described as a native later.[21]
A small species known from subfossil bones found in caves along with remains of Rodrigues solitaires. It disappeared between 1726 and 1761 due to predation by rats.[21]
Possibly disappeared from the main island by the 1640s already, during the first period of Dutch settlement (1638-1658). Later reports may actually refer to the red rail, though the ones from offshore islands in 1662[21] and 1688[32] could be genuine. Though hunted, settlers were few and the primary cause of extinction may have been predation by introduced mammals like black rats, pigs, goats, and monkeys.[21]
Possibly mentioned in a 1602 document. A fightless descendant of the white-throated rail, which is a rare vagrant in Mauritius. It quickly disappeared due to hunting and predation by introduced mammals.[21]
Last recorded around 1730 and presumably hunted to extinction.[38] Considered a hypothetical species: it almost certainly existed but lacks supporting fossil remains.[4]
Survived the introduction of rats in Rodrigues but disappeared with the arrival of cats in 1726-1761. A dead bird was found in Mauritius in 2002, presumed to have dispersed from Réunion. Survives but is critically endangered in Réunion.[40][39]
Last recorded in Mauritius around 1670, Rodrigues in 1832, and Seychelles in 1908.[39] Vagrants from Christmas Island (only surviving breeding population) visited Chagos until 1996.[41] It seems to have disappeared from Mauritius due to nest raiding by introduced monkeys, with old birds persisting for a time after rearing young became impossible. It likely was hunted to extinction in Rodrigues, where it was held as the only seabird worthy of human consumption in the 18th century. In Seychelles, it disappeared due to a combination of hunting and habitat destruction through deforestation and guano mining.[39] Examination of subfossil remains from the Mascarenes indicates that the local population was distinct.[4]
Hunted to extinction in Rodrigues in 1874.[39] Extinct as resident but still vagrant in Mauritius. Survives in Réunion, Madagascar, and Seychelles.[42]
Extinct in Mauritius and Réunion. Last recorded on Réunion in 1705, where the young were considered good to eat.[4] It survived the introduction of rats and pigs, but disappeared when cats were introduced.[39] No historical mentions from Mauritius but subfossils were found at the Mare aux Songes. The Mascarene remains are distinct and smaller, possibly representing a third subspecies after the African and Malagasy ones.[4]
Last claimed sighting (second-hand) in 1837. It likely disappeared as a result of increased deforestation, as it survived for two centuries after potential predatory mammals were introduced.[21]
Last recorded in 1673-1675. It was likely hunted to extinction.[54] Though large and a poor flier, it was also ill-tempered and apparently capable of fighting introduced mammals.[21]
Carl Wilhelm Hahn's 1834 claim that he had seen the last individual alive in the menagerie of Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria is usually cited as the last known instance of this species. However, the observation itself was not dated and could have happened decades before. In fact, Maximilian I died in 1825, and when his animals were auctioned the following year, no mascarene parrot was listed among them. Hahn's illustration of the bird also appears to have been copied from a 50 years older painting. The species was otherwise last mentioned in the wild in the 1770s, and in captivity in Europe in 1784.[55]
Last recorded in 1761. It was likely hunted to extinction.[56] Other possible causes include deforestation and predation by introduced rats and cats.[21]
Last recorded on Réunion in 1732 and on Mauritius in 1759. It was hunted for food and to protect crops. Its final disappearance coincides with large scale clearing of forests for agriculture with slash and burn tactics. All surviving material is from Mauritius as no individuals from Réunion were collected and preserved.[21]
Last collected in 1875. By then the species was very rare and the survivors could have been wiped out by a series of cyclones that struck the island in the following years. It was very tame and easy to catch.[21]
Locally extinct, old World parrots (family Psittaculidae)
Extirpated from Seychelles. An introduced population from Mauritius is also extinct. Survives in Madagascar and has been successfully introduced to Comoros and Mayotte.[58]
Last recorded in 1983. Likely driven to extinction by habitat degradation caused by introduced goats and tortoises, and predation by cats and rats.[59]
Known from subfossil remains. It likely disappeared as a result of the almost complete deforestation of the island, or introduced mammalian predators.[21]
Last collected in 1892. It was driven to extinction by deforestation to make way for coconut plantations, competition with introduced birds, and predation by black rats.[21]
Last recorded in 1726. The cause of extinction is unknown, but could have included hunting, habitat destruction, and predation by introduced mammals.[62]
Last recorded in 1671-1672. It could have disappeared due to predation by black rats, which were introduced a few years later, or the clearing of lowland forests for agriculture.[21]
Last collected in 1842.[55] Disappeared from the main island after the introduction of cats in 1732-1755, and from Frégate after the introduction of brown rats.[65]
Possible subfossil vertebrae were found on mainland Mauritius but cannot be confidently assigned to this species or the extant Round Island boa (Casarea dussumieri). Similarly, snakes of the same size were reported on other offshore islands, such as Ile de la Passe on the southeast until the 1760s, Gunner’s Quoin and Flat Island on the north until 1839. If present on mainland Mauritius, it might have been driven extinct there due to predation by rats or cats. Restricted with certainty to Round Island by 1881, it was last recorded in 1975. Its final extinction was caused by the island being denuded of vegetation by introduced goats and rabbits.[69]
Extinct, at least on the main island, since c. 1735.[72] In 1844 a female tortoise was captured alive on Round Island and taken to Mauritius, where it laid eggs that hatched. The fate and species of these tortoises is unknown.[55]
Extinct, at least on the main island, since c. 1735.[72] In 1844 a female tortoise was captured alive on Round Island and taken to Mauritius, where it laid eggs that hatched. The fate and species of these tortoises is unknown.[55]
Known from five individuals collected in 1962, described as a new species in 2006. It was driven to extinction by deforestation causing increased sedimentation, along with fishing and predation by introduced tilapias.[75]
^The source gives "11,700 calendar yr b2k (before CE 2000)". But "BP" means "before CE 1950". Therefore, the Holocene began 11,650 BP. Doing the math, that is c. 9700 BCE.
^The population in this region has previously been considered a separate species, the dimorphic egretE. dimorpha.[47]
^Goodman, S.M., Vasey, N., & Burney, D.A. (2007). Description of a new species of subfossil shrew tenrec (Afrosoricida: Tenrecidae: Microgale) from cave deposits in southeastern Madagascar. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, 120(4), 367-376.
^ abcdefgCrowley, B. E. (2010). A refined chronology of prehistoric Madagascar and the demise of the megafauna. Quaternary Science Reviews, 29(19-20), 2591-2603.
^ abcStuart, A.J. (2021) Vanished Giants: The Lost World of the Ice Age. University of Chicago Press, 288 pages.
^Benda, P. and Vallo, P. 2009. Taxonomic revision of the genus Triaenops (Chiroptera: Hipposideridae) with description of a new species from southern Arabia and definitions of a new genus and tribe. Folia Zoologica 58 (Monograph 1):1–45.
^Brial, P. (2001). Une espèce inconnue de microchiroptère observée par Bory de Saint-Vincent à l'île de la Réunion en 1801. Bulletin de la Société Geographique de la Réunion, 1(5).
^Meador, L.R., et al. (2019) Cryptoprocta spelea (Carnivora: Eupleridae): what did it eat and how do we know?. Journal of Mammalian Evolution, 26(2), 237-251.
^ abGoodman, S.M. (2003). "Predation on lemurs". In Goodman, S.M.; Benstead, J.P. (eds.). The Natural History of Madagascar. University of Chicago Press. pp. 1221–1228. ISBN0-226-30306-3.
^Turvey, S.T. (2009). "In the shadow of the megafauna: prehistoric mammal and bird extinctions across the Holocene". In Turvey, Samuel T (ed.). Holocene Extinctions. Oxford University Press. pp. 17–40. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199535095.003.0002. ISBN978-0-19-953509-5.
^ abcdHansford, J.P. et al. (2021). Simultaneous extinction of Madagascar's megaherbivores correlates with late Holocene human-caused landscape transformation. Quaternary Science Reviews, 263, 106996.
^Safford, R. & Hawkins, F. (2020) The Birds of Africa. Volume VIII: The Malagasy Region: Madagascar, Seychelles, Comoros, Mascarenes. Bloomsbury Publishing, 1024 pages.
^Cheke, A. S., & Parish, J. C. (2020). The Dodo and the Red Hen, a saga of extinction, misunderstanding, and name transfer: A review. Quaternary, 3(1), 4.
^ abcdefgCheke, A. S. (2013). Extinct birds of the Mascarenes and Seychelles–a review of the causes of extinction in the light of an important new publication on extinct birds. Phelsuma, 21, 4-19.
^Tatayah, R. V., Jones, C. G., Birch, D., & Salamolard, M. (2011). first record of Réunion Black Petrel Pseudobulweria aterrima on Mauritius. Bull. British Ornithologist’s Club, 131(1), 64-66.
^ abPratt, H. D., Retter, M. L., Chapman, D., Ord, W. M., & Pisano, P. (2009). An Abbott’s booby Papasula abbotti on Rota, Mariana Islands: first historical record for the Pacific Ocean. Bulletin of the British Ornithologists’ Club, 129, 87-91.
^ abGoodman, S.M. (2022). The New Natural History of Madagascar. Princeton University Press, 2296 pages.
^Goodman, S. M., & Muldoon, K. M. (2016). A new subfossil locality for the extinct large Malagasy eagle Stephanoaetus mahery (Aves: Falconiformes): implications for time of extinction and ecological specificity. The Holocene, 26(6), 985-989.
^Goodman, S. M. (2000). A description of a new species of Brachypteracias (Family Brachypteraciidae) from the Holocene of Madagascar. Ostrich, 71(1-2), 318-322.
^ abcdefCheke, A. & Hume, J.P. (2009) Lost land of the dodo: The ecological history of Mauritius, Réunion and Rodrigues. T & AD Poyser, London, 480 pages.
^Hume, J. P. (2014). Systematics, morphology, and ecological history of the Mascarene starlings (Aves: Sturnidae) with the description of a new genus and species from Mauritius. Zootaxa, 3849(1), 1-75.
^Hekkala, E., et al. Paleogenomics illuminates the evolutionary history of the extinct Holocene “horned” crocodile of Madagascar, Voay robustus (2021). Communications Biology, vol. 4, no 1, p. 1-11.
^ abcdefConservation Biology of Freshwater Turtles and Tortoises: A Compilation Project of the IUCN/SSC Tortoise and Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group. A.G.J. Rhodin, P.C.H. Pritchard, P.P. van Dijk, R.A. Saumure, K.A. Buhlmann, J.B. Iverson, and R.A. Mittermeier, Eds. Chelonian Research Monographs ( ISSN1088-7105) No. 5, doi:10.3854/crm.5.000e.fossil.checklist.v1.2015
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