Wikipedia

List of asanas

An asana is a body posture, used in both medieval hatha yoga and modern yoga.[1] The term is derived from the Sanskrit word for 'seat'. While many of the oldest mentioned asanas are indeed seated postures for meditation, asanas may be standing, seated, arm-balances, twists, inversions, forward bends, backbends, or reclining in prone or supine positions. The asanas have been given a variety of English names by competing schools of yoga.[2]

Padmāsana, lotus pose, used for meditation. Gilt bronze statue of Bodhisattva Manjusri and Prajnaparamita, Nepal, c. 1575

The traditional number of asanas is the symbolic 84, but different texts identify different selections, sometimes listing their names without describing them.[3][a] Some names have been given to different asanas over the centuries, and some asanas have been known by a variety of names, making tracing and the assignment of dates difficult.[5] For example, the name Muktasana is now given to a variant of Siddhasana with one foot in front of the other, but has also been used for Siddhasana and other cross-legged meditation poses.[6] As another example, the headstand is now known by the 20th century name Shirshasana, but an older name for the pose is Kapalasana.[3][7] Sometimes, the names have the same meaning, as with Bidalasana and Marjariasana, both meaning Cat Pose.[8][9]

Affixes

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Variations on the basic asanas are indicated by Sanskrit affixes including the following:

English Sanskrit Meaning Example
Adho अधो downward Adho Mukha Shvanasana (downward dog)
Ardha अर्ध half Ardha Padmasana (half lotus)
Baddha बद्ध bound Baddha Konasana (bound angle)
Dvi द्वि two Dvi Pada Kaundinyasana (two-legged Kaundinya)
Eka एक one Eka Pada Shirshasana (one-legged headstand)
Parivritta परिवृत्त revolved Parivritta Trikonasana (reverse triangle)
Prasarita प्रसारित spread out Prasarita Padottanasana (wide stance forward bend)
Salamba सालम्ब supported Salamba Shirshasana (supported headstand)
Supta सुप्त supine, reclining Supta Virasana (reclining hero)
Upavishta उपविष्ठ seated Upavishta Konasana (wide-angle seated forward bend)
Urdhva ऊर्ध्व upwards Urdhva Dhanurasana (upwards bow)
Utthita उत्थित extended Utthita Parsvakonasana (extended side angle)
Viparita विपरीत inverted Viparita Dandasana (inverted staff)

|- |Tadasana |ताड़ासन |Standing | Tadasana (Mountain Pose) |}

Asanas

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A single asana is listed for each main pose, whether or not there are variations. Thus for Sirsasana (Yoga headstand), only one pose is illustrated, although the pose can be varied by moving the legs apart sideways or front-and-back, by lowering one leg to the floor, by folding the legs into lotus posture, by turning the hips to one side, by placing the hands differently on the ground, and so on. Iyengar's 1966 Light on Yoga lists 15 variations on the basic headstand, including for instance the combined variation Parivrttaikapada Sirsasana in which not only are the hips revolved but the legs are apart front-and-back.[10] Since then, variations of many other poses have been created; their names are not listed here.[11] Yin Yoga names are for the equivalent Yin variants; these are usually somewhat different from the conventional (Yang) poses.

Indian texts are "notoriously difficult to date".[12] The table shows the approximate date and abbreviated title of the earliest document or authority to describe that asana (not only naming it), as follows:

Asana Sanskrit English Type Effect on spine Suitable for meditation Described[c] Yin Yoga variant[13][d] Image
Adho Mukha Shvanasana[14] अधोमुखश्वानासन Downward-Facing Dog Standing Forward bend 20th C. TK[15]
18th C. HAP (in dynamic pose "Gajāsana")[16]
 
Adho Mukha Vrikshasana[17] अधोमुखवृक्षासन Downward-Facing Tree,
Yoga Handstand
 Balancing 18th C. HAP[18]
 
Akarna Dhanurasana[19] आकर्णधनुरासन Shooting bow,
Archer,
Bow and arrow
 Sitting 19th C. ST[20] (as Dhanurāsana)
 
Anantasana[21] अनन्तासन Ananta's pose,
Vishnu's Couch pose
 Reclining 20th C. LoY[22]
 
Anjaneyasana[23] अञ्जनेयासन Crescent Moon[24] Standing Backbend 20th C.[24] Dragon
 
Ardha Chandrasana[25] अर्धचन्द्रासन Half moon Standing 20th C. LoY[26]
 
Ashtanga Namaskara[15] अष्टाङ्ग नमस्कार Eight-Limbed Salutation
Caterpillar 		Reclining 20th C. TK[15]
 
Astavakrasana[27] अष्टावक्रासन Aṣṭāvakra's pose,
Eight-angled
 Balancing 20th C. LoY[28]
 
Baddha Konasana[29]
Bhadrasana[30]
 बद्धकोणासन Bound angle,
Cobbler's pose 		Sitting Meditation[30] 15th C. HYP[30]
17th C. GhS[30]
 Butterfly
 
Bakasana[31]
Kakasana[32]
 बकासन,
ककासन
 Crane (arms straight)
Crow (arms bent)
 Balancing 17th C. HR[33]
 
Balasana[34] बालासन Child Sitting 20th C. TK[35]
19th C. ST Ananda Balasana (as Kandukasana)[36] 		Child's
 
Bhairavasana
Ankushasana[37]
 भैरवासन
अण्कुशासन
 Formidable Reclining 19th C. ST[37]
 
Bharadvajasana[38] भरद्वाजासन Bharadvaja's twist Sitting Twist 20th C. LoY[39] Seated Twist
 
Bhekasana[40] भेकासन Frog Reclining Backbend 20th C. LoY[41]
 
Bhujangasana[42] भुजङ्गासन Cobra Reclining Backbend 17th C. GhS 2.42[43][44] Seal, Sphinx
 
Bhujapidasana[45] भुजपीडासन Arm-pressing posture Balancing 20th C. LoY[46] Snail
 
Bidalasana[8]
Marjariasana[9]
 बिडालासन
मार्जरीआसन
 Cat Kneeling Backbend 20th C. T.K.V. Desikachar, Satyananda Saraswati[9]
 
Chaturanga Dandasana[47] चतुरङ्गदण्डासन Four-Limbed Staff
Low Plank 		Reclining 20th C. TK[48]
 
Dandasana[49] दण्डासन Staff Sitting 8th C. PSV[50]
 
Dhanurasana[51] धनुरासन Bow Reclining Backbend 15th C. HYP 1.27
 
Durvasasana[52] दुर्वासासन Durvasa's Pose Standing, Balancing 19th C. ST (as 'Trivikramasana')[53]
 
Garbha Pindasana[54] गर्भासन Embryo in Womb Sitting 17th C. BaH[55]
 
Garudasana[56] गरुडासन Eagle Standing, Balancing 19th C. ST[57][e]
 
Gomukhasana[58] गोमुखासन Cow-faced Sitting Meditation[59] 4th C. DU 3.3–4[60][61]
7th C. AS[61]
10th C. V[62]
15th C. HYP 1.20
17th C. HR 3[63][64][61] 		Shoelace
 
Gorakshasana गोरक्षासन Cowherd
Gorakhnath's pose
 Sitting Meditation 14th C. ShS 3.108-112
15th C. HYP 1.28-29
17th C. GhS 2.24-25
 
Halasana[65] हलासन Plough Inversion Forward bend 19th C. ST[66] (as Lāṇgalāsana, plough)
20th C. TB[67]
 
Hanumanasana[68] हनुमनासन Hanuman's Pose Sitting 20th C. TK[69]
 
Janusirsasana[70] जानुशीर्षासन Head-to-Knee Sitting Forward Bend 20th C. TK[71][72]
 
Jathara Parivartanasana[73] ञटर परिवर्तनासन Belly twist Reclining Twist 20th C. LoY[73]
Kapotasana[74] कपोतासन Pigeon Kneeling Backbend 20th C. LoY[75]
 
Karnapidasana[76] कर्णपीडासन Ear-pressing Inversion Forward bend 20th C. TB[77] (as variant of Halasana); LoY[78]
 
Kaundinyasana[79] कौण्डिन्यसन Kaundinya's pose Balancing 20th C. LoY[80]
 
Kraunchasana[81] क्रौञ्चासन Heron Sitting 17th C. HR[33]
Kukkutasana[54] कुक्कुटासन Cockerel Balancing 7th C. AS[55]
13th C. VS[82]
15th C. HYP 1.23
17th C. GhS 2.31[57]
 
Kurmasana[83][84] कूर्मासन Tortoise Sitting Forward bend 7th C. AS[55]
 
Lolasana[85] लोलासन Pendant Balancing 20th C.[f][g]
 
Makarasana[88] मकरासन Crocodile Reclining 17th C. GhS 2.40[h]
 
Malasana[90] मालासन Garland Squatting Forward bend 20th C. LoY[90]
 
Mandukasana मन्दुकासन Frog Sitting 17th C. GhS[43]
Marichyasana[91] मरीच्यासन Marichi's Pose Sitting Twist 20th C. TK[92]
 
Matsyasana[93] मत्स्यासन Fish Reclining Backbend 17th C. GhS 2.21 Fish
 
Matsyendrasana[94] मत्स्येन्द्रासन Lord of the Fishes
Matsyendra's pose 		Sitting Twist 15th C. HYP 1.28-29
17th C. GhS
 
Mayurasana[17] मयूरासन Peacock Balancing 10th C. V[62]
15th C. HYP 1.33
 
Muktasana[6] मुक्तासन Liberated Sitting Meditation 10th C. V[62][i]
 
Natarajasana[95] नटराजासन Lord of the Dance
Dancer
Nataraja's Pose 		Standing Backbend 20th C. TK[96]
 
Navasana
Naukasana[37]
 नावासन,
परिपूर्णनावासन
नौकासन 		Boat Sitting Forward bend 19th C. ST[37]
 
Padmasana[97] पद्मासन Lotus Sitting Meditation[98] 4th C. DU[99]
8th C. PSV[50]
 
Parighasana[100] परिघासन Gate Standing 20th C. TK[48]
 
Parshvakonasana[101] पार्श्वकोणासन Side angle Standing 20th C. TK[48][71]
 
Parshvottanasana[102] पार्श्वोत्तनासन Intense side stretch Standing 20th C. TK[48][71]
 
Pashasana[103] पाशासन Noose Squatting Twist 19th C. ST[44]
 
Paschimottanasana[104] पश्चिमोत्तानासन Seated Forward Bend Sitting Forward Bend 15th C. HYP 1:28[20]
17th C. GhS 2:26[20]
 Full Forward Bend, Caterpillar
 
Pincha Mayurasana[105] पिञ्चमयूरासन Feathered Peacock Balancing 20th C. LoY[106]
 
Prasarita Padottanasana[107] प्रसारित पादोत्तानासन Wide Stance Forward Bend Standing Forward bend 20th C. TK[48][71]
 
Rajakapotasana[108] राजकपोतासन King Pigeon Sitting Backbend 20th C. LoY[109] Swan, Sleeping Swan
 
Shalabhasana[110] शलभासन Locust Reclining Backbend 20th C. TB[111]
 
Sarvangasana[112] सालम्बसर्वाङ्गासन Shoulder Stand Inversion 20th C. (this name); 19th C. as Viparita Karani in JP; 15th C. HYP
 
Samakonasana[113] समकोणासन Side splits Sitting 20th C. TK[71]
 
Shavasana[114] शवासन Corpse Reclining 15th C. HYP 1.32[115] Corpse
 
Setu Bandha Sarvangasana[116] सेतुबन्धसर्वाङ्गासन Shoulder supported bridge Inversion Backbend 19th C. ST, called Kāmapīṭhāsana[117]
 
Siddhasana (men),
Siddha Yoni Asana (women)[118]
 सिद्धासन Accomplished,
The Adept's Pose 		Sitting Meditation[118] 10th C. GS 1.10-12
 
Simhasana[119] सिंहासन Lion Sitting Meditation[119] 4th C. DU[99]
10th C. V[62]
 
Shirshasana[120]
Kapalasana[121] 		शीर्षासन Headstand,
Yoga Headstand
 Inversion 11th C. HY[122](called Duryodhanāsana or Kapālīkarana)
14th C. ShS 4.45-47 (as Viparita Karani)[123]
15th C. HYP 3.78-81 (ditto)[123]
17th C. GhS 3.33-35 (ditto)[123]
18th C. JP (as Kapala āsana)
 
Sukhasana[124] सुखासन Easy Sitting Meditation[125] 4th C. DU[126] Easy
 
Supta Padangusthasana[127] सुप्त पादाङ्गुष्ठासन Big toe supine Reclining 20th C. TK[48][71]
 
Surya Namaskar[128][129] सुर्य नमस्कार Salute to the Sun
Sun Salutation 		Standing Forward bend,
backbend sequence 		20th C. Rajah of Aundh,[130] then TK[15]
 
Svastikasana[131] स्वस्तिकसन Auspicious
Lucky mark 		Sitting Meditation[131] 8th C. PSV[50] Square
 
Tadasana[132] ताडासन Mountain Standing 20th C. TK[48]
 
Tittibhasana[133] टिट्टिभासन Firefly Balancing 19th C. ST[44] (as Mālāsana)
 
Trikonasana,
Utthita Trikonasana[134] 		त्रिकोणासन,
उत्थित त्रिकोणासन 		Triangle Standing 20th C. TK[135]
 
Trivikramasana[136] त्रिविक्रमासन Trivikrama's pose
Standing splits
Supta Trivikramasana (reclining variant) 		Standing, Balancing 13th - 18th C. in Bharatnatyam dance statues of Eastern Gopuram, Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram[137]
 
Tulasana[138] तुलासन Balance / Scales Balancing 20th C. LoY[139]
 
Upavishta Konasana[140] उपविष्टकोणासन Open Angle Sitting 20th C. TK[71] Dragonfly
 
Urdhva Dhanurasana[141]
Chakrasana
 ऊर्ध्वधनुरासन, चक्रासन Upwards-facing bow,
Wheel 		Inversion Backbend 19th C. ST[142] (as Paryaṇkāsana)
 
Urdhva Mukha Shvanasana[143] ऊर्ध्वमुखश्वानासन Upward-Facing Dog Reclining Backbend 20th C. TK[48]
 
Ushtrasana[144] उष्ट्रासन Camel Kneeling Backbend 20th C. LoY[145]
 
Utkatasana[146] उत्कटासन Awkward or Powerful Standing 15th C. HYP (squatting)[147]
17th C. GhS[43]

20th C. TK[148] (chair-like)
 
Uttanasana[149] उत्तानासन Standing Forward Bend Standing Forward bend 20th C. TB (as Padahastasana)[150]; TK[48][71]
 
Utthita Hastapadangusthasana[151] उत्थित हस्तपादाङ्गुष्ठासन Standing Big Toe Hold
(I: leg to the side;
II: leg to the front[151])
 Standing 20th C. TK[48][71]
 
Vajrasana[152] वज्रासन Thunderbolt Kneeling Meditation[153] 17th C. GhS[43] (may mean Virasana[115])
 
Vasishtasana[154] वसिष्ठासन Vasishta's pose,
Side plank
 Balancing 20th C. TK[155]
 
Viparita Dandasana[156] विपरीत दण्डासन Inverted Staff Inversion Backbend 20th C. TK?, LoY[156]
 
Viparita Karani[157]
Uttanapadasana (variant) 		विपरीतकरणि Inverted practice
Legs up the wall
 Inversion 13th C. VM for pratyahara[158]
14th C. ShS 4.45-47[123]
15th C. HYP 3.78-81[123]
17th C. GhS 3.33-35[123] and other texts[135][j]
 Legs-Up-the-Wall
 
Viparita Virabhadrasana[159] विपरीतवीरभद्रासन Reversed Warrior[k] Standing 21st C. PL[159]
 
Virabhadrasana I[160] वीरभद्रासन Warrior I Standing 20th C. TK[161][162]
 
Virabhadrasana II[163] वीरभद्रासन II Warrior II Standing 20th C. TK[161][162]
 
Virabhadrasana III[164] वीरभद्रासन III Warrior III Standing 20th C. TK[161][162]
 
Virasana,[165]
Dhyana Virasana[166]
 वीरासन,
ध्यान वीरासन
 Hero,
Hero's Meditation
 Kneeling Meditation[166][167] 4th C. DU[99]
8th C. PSV[50] (these may refer to a different meditation pose)
 
Vrikshasana[168] वृक्षासन Tree Standing, Balancing 17th C. GhS[43]
 
Vrischikasana[169] वृश्चिकासन Scorpion Inversion Backbend 20th C. LoY[170] (13th - 18th C. in Bharatnatyam dance statues of Eastern Gopuram, Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram but not yoga[137])
 
Yoganidrasana[171]
Pasini Mudra 		योगनिद्रासन Yogic sleep
Noose Mudra 		Reclining Forward bend 17th C. HR 3.70
17th C. GhS 3.84 as a Mudra
18th C. painting, Mysore[172]
 

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ 84's symbolism may derive from its astrological and numerological properties: it is the product of 7, the number of planets in astrology, and 12, the number of signs of the zodiac, while in numerology, 7 is the sum of 3 and 4, and 12 is the product, i.e. 84 is (3 4)×(3×4).[4]
  2. ^ PL, Post-Light on Yoga poses, are marked as '21st C.' to sort late 20th as well as 21st century asanas after TK and LoY.
  3. ^ Sjoman notes that the names of asanas have been used "promiscuous[ly]", making their history difficult to trace: the presence of matching names is not proof of continuity, since the same name may mean a different pose, and a pose may have been known by other names at different times.[5] The dates here are therefore based on documents which provide actual descriptions of the asanas.
  4. ^ The Yin Yoga variants are similar but not identical to their 'Yang' equivalents.[13]
  5. ^ GhS uses the name Garuḍāsana for a different pose.
  6. ^ Not yet yoga in 1896 as Jhūla pose in Vyayama Dipika gymnastics book[86]
  7. ^ LoY has the legs as in Gomukhasana, not in Padmasana.[87]
  8. ^ LoY quotes and interprets GhS 2.40 as meaning a variant of Salabhasana, the legs stretched out and raised, the arms as GhS states on the head, also raised;[89] Saraswati has the head supported with elbows on the ground;[88] a widespread modern form has feet and head on the ground.
  9. ^ Several sitting meditation poses have been called Muktasana.
  10. ^ Viparita Karani is an inverted practice rather than an asana; the ShS, HYP and GhS descriptions suggest the actual posture used was a headstand.
  11. ^ This is a well-documented example of a post-Light on Yoga (1966) pose, created as a variation of the 20th century Warrior poses. Hundreds of less common variations of other poses have been created in the same time frame.

References

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  1. ^ Singleton 2010, pp. 4–5.
  2. ^ Murugan 2012.
  3. ^ a b Bühnemann, Gudrun (2007). Eighty-Four Asanas in Yoga: A Survey of Traditions. New Delhi: D. K. Printworld. pp. 47, 151. ISBN 978-8124604175.
  4. ^ Rosen, Richard (2017). Yoga FAQ: Almost Everything You Need to Know about Yoga-from Asanas to Yamas. Shambhala. pp. 171–. ISBN 978-0-8348-4057-7.
  5. ^ a b Sjoman 1999, p. 59.
  6. ^ a b "Muktasana". Yogapedia. Retrieved 23 November 2018.
  7. ^ Sjoman 1999, p. 57.
  8. ^ a b Lidell 1983, p. 166.
  9. ^ a b c "Cat Pose – Marjariasana". Akasha Yoga. Retrieved 13 January 2019.
  10. ^ Iyengar 1979, pp. 179–205.
  11. ^ McCrary, Meagan (15 July 2015). "#YJ40: 10 Poses Younger Than Yoga Journal". Yoga Journal. Once you learn how the fundamental poses work anatomically then it's very natural to start to play with breaking them apart and putting them back together differently ... You won't find this playful variation of Warrior II Pose in Light on Yoga.
  12. ^ Mallinson & Singleton 2017, p. xxxix.
  13. ^ a b Powers 2008, p. 195.
  14. ^ Mehta, Mehta & Mehta 1990, p. 147.
  15. ^ a b c d Singleton 2010, pp. 205–206.
  16. ^ Mallinson & Singleton 2017, p. 125.
  17. ^ a b Lidell 1983, p. 142.
  18. ^ Mallinson & Singleton 2017, p. 124.
  19. ^ Saraswati 1996, p. 137.
  20. ^ a b c Sjoman 1999, p. 84.
  21. ^ Mehta, Mehta & Mehta 1990, p. 87.
  22. ^ Iyengar 1979, pp. 246–247.
  23. ^ Steiner, Ronald (June 2015). "Anjaneyāsana - Learning devotion from Hanuman". Yoga Aktuell (in German) (92 June/July 2015). Retrieved 23 January 2019.
  24. ^ a b Lidell 1983, pp. 132–133.
  25. ^ Mehta, Mehta & Mehta 1990, p. 30.
  26. ^ Iyengar 1979, pp. 74–76.
  27. ^ Mehta, Mehta & Mehta 1990, p. 128.
  28. ^ Iyengar 1979, pp. 276–278.
  29. ^ Mehta, Mehta & Mehta 1990, p. 57.
  30. ^ a b c d "How to do Bhadrasana?". The Yoga Institute. 3 August 2018. Retrieved 5 January 2019.
  31. ^ Mehta, Mehta & Mehta 1990, p. 130.
  32. ^ Lidell 1983, p. 60.
  33. ^ a b Srinivasa 2002, pp. 98–122 asanas listed, Figures of asanas in unnumbered pages between pages 153 and 154, asanas named but not described in text listed on pages 157–159.
  34. ^ Lidell 1983, p. 39.
  35. ^ "Balasana - Child Pose". Akasha Yoga. Retrieved 13 January 2019.
  36. ^ Sjoman 1999, pp. 15, 70, plate 1 (pose 6).
  37. ^ a b c d Sjoman 1999, p. 69.
  38. ^ Mehta, Mehta & Mehta 1990, p. 77.
  39. ^ Iyengar 1979, pp. 251–254.
  40. ^ Mehta, Mehta & Mehta 1990, p. 86.
  41. ^ Iyengar 1979, pp. 126–128.
  42. ^ Mehta, Mehta & Mehta 1990, p. 93.
  43. ^ a b c d e Mallinson 2004, pp. 16–17.
  44. ^ a b c Sjoman 1999, p. 76.
  45. ^ Mehta, Mehta & Mehta 1990, p. 129.
  46. ^ Iyengar 1979, pp. 280–282.
  47. ^ Mehta, Mehta & Mehta 1990, p. 89.
  48. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Singleton 2010, pp. 204–205.
  49. ^ Mehta, Mehta & Mehta 1990, p. 52.
  50. ^ a b c d Mallinson & Singleton 2017, pp. 97–99.
  51. ^ Mehta, Mehta & Mehta 1990, p. 94.
  52. ^ Iyengar 1979, pp. 299–302.
  53. ^ Sjoman 1999, p. 78.
  54. ^ a b Lidell 1983, pp. 136–137.
  55. ^ a b c Mallinson, James (9 December 2011). "A Response to Mark Singleton's Yoga Body by JamesMallinson". Retrieved 4 January 2019. revised from American Academy of Religions conference, San Francisco, 19 November 2011.
  56. ^ Mehta, Mehta & Mehta 1990, p. 46.
  57. ^ a b Sjoman 1999, p. 75.
  58. ^ Mehta, Mehta & Mehta 1990, p. 56.
  59. ^ "Gomukhasana (Cow Face Posture)". The Divine Life Society. 2011. Retrieved 28 January 2019. Hence, this Asana is suitable for the practice of Pranayama. Ordinarily you can sit at all times in this Asana for long meditation also.
  60. ^ Ayyangar 1938, p. 124.
  61. ^ a b c Sriharisukesh & Pailoor 2019, pp. 270–273.
  62. ^ a b c d Mallinson & Singleton 2017, pp. 100–101.
  63. ^ Srinivasa 2002.
  64. ^ Mallinson & Singleton 2017, pp. 116–119.
  65. ^ Mehta, Mehta & Mehta 1990, p. 110.
  66. ^ Sjoman 1999, p. 72.
  67. ^ Bernard 2007, p. 110.
  68. ^ Saraswati 1996, p. 340.
  69. ^ Singleton 2010, pp. 60–63.
  70. ^ Mehta, Mehta & Mehta 1990, p. 59.
  71. ^ a b c d e f g h i Sjoman 1999, p. 49.
  72. ^ "Head to Knee Pose – Janushirshasana". Akasha Yoga. Retrieved 13 January 2019.
  73. ^ a b Iyengar 1979, pp. 237–240.
  74. ^ Mehta, Mehta & Mehta 1990, p. 144.
  75. ^ Iyengar 1979, pp. 367–372.
  76. ^ Mehta, Mehta & Mehta 1990, p. 112.
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  78. ^ Iyengar 1979, pp. 220–221.
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Sources

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