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Jin dynasty (1115–1234)

(Redirected from Jin dynasty (1115-1234))
Not to be confused with the earlier Jin dynasty (266–420).
"Anchu" and "Jurchen dynasty" redirect here. For the novel, see Anchu (novel). For the 17th-century Jurchen khanate, see Later Jin (1616–1636).

The Jin dynasty (/dʒɪn/,[2] Chinese: 金朝; pinyin: Jīn cháo),[a] officially known as the Great Jin (大金; Dà Jīn), was an imperial dynasty of China that existed between 1115 and 1234.[b] As the ruling Wanyan clan was of Jurchen descent, it is also sometimes called the Jurchen dynasty or the Jurchen Jin. At its peak, the empire extended from Outer Manchuria in the north to the Qinling–Huaihe Line in the south.

Great Jin
大金
1115–1234
Jin territory c. 1141 in blue  
Jin territory c. 1141 in blue  
Capital
Common languagesMiddle Chinese (later Old Mandarin), Jurchen, Khitan
Religion
GovernmentMonarchy
Emperor 
• 1115–1123
Taizu (first)
• 1161–1189
Shizong
• 1234
Modi (last)
Historical eraMedieval Asia
• Founded by Aguda
28 January 1115
• Destruction of the Liao dynasty
26 March 1125
• Capture of Bianliang from the Northern Song
9 January 1127
• Mongol invasion
1211
• Fall of Caizhou to the Mongol Empire
9 February 1234
Area
1142 est.3,610,000 km2 (1,390,000 sq mi)
1186 est.4,750,000 km2 (1,830,000 sq mi)
Population
• 1186 est.[1]
53,000,000
CurrencyJin dynasty coinage:
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Liao dynasty
Northern Song
Northern Liao
Mongol Empire
Southern Song
Qara Khitai
Western Liao
Eastern Xia
Eastern Liao
Today part of

The Jin dynasty emerged from Wanyan Aguda's rebellion against the Liao dynasty (916–1125), which held sway over northern China until being driven by the nascent Jin to the Western Regions, where they would become known in Chinese historiography as the Western Liao. After conquering the Liao territory, the Jin launched a century-long campaign against the Song dynasty (960–1279) based in southern China, whose rulers were ethnically Han Chinese. Over the course of the Jin's rule, their emperors adapted to Han customs and even fortified the Great Wall against the ascendant Mongol Empire. The Jin also oversaw a number of internal cultural advances, such as the revival of Confucianism.

In 1211, the Mongols, led by Genghis Khan, invaded the Jin Empire, winning several victories. Over the span of 23 years, the Jin faced several defeats, internal revolts, defections, and coups. They were finally conquered by the Mongols in 1234.

Name

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Main article: Names of China

The Jin dynasty was officially known as the "Great Jin" (大金), with Jin meaning "gold". The Jurchen word for "gold", and therefore also for their state name, was alchun.[5] Furthermore, the Jin emperors referred to their state as China, Zhongguo (中國), just as some other non-Han dynasties.[6] Non-Han rulers expanded the definition of "China" to include non-Han peoples in addition to Han people whenever they ruled China.[7] Jin documents indicate that the usage of "China" by dynasties to refer to themselves began earlier than previously thought.[8]

History

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Main article: Jin–Song Wars
See also: Timeline of the Jurchens
Jin dynasty
Chinese name
Chinese金朝
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu PinyinJīn cháo
Bopomofoㄐㄧㄣ ㄔㄠˊ
Wade–GilesChin1 Ch'ao2
Tongyong PinyinJin cháo
IPA[tɕín.ʈʂʰǎʊ]
Yue: Cantonese
Jyutpinggam1 ciu4
IPA[kɐm˥ tsʰiw˩]
Alternative Chinese name
Chinese大金
Literal meaningGreat Jin
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu PinyinDà Jīn
Bopomofoㄉㄚˋ ㄐㄧㄣ
Wade–GilesTa4 Chin1
Tongyong PinyinDà Jin
IPA[tâ.tɕín]
Yue: Cantonese
Jyutpingdaai6 gam1
IPA[taj˨ kɐm˥]
Khitan name
KhitanNik, Niku

Origin

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The progenitors of the Jin and the Jurchen people were the Mohe people, who lived in what is now Northeast China. The Mohe were a primarily sedentary people who practiced hunting, pig farming, and grew crops such as soybean, wheat, millet, and rice. Horses were rare in the region until the Tang period and pastoralism was not widespread until the 10th century under the domination of the Khitans. The Mohe exported reindeer products and may have ridden them as well. They practiced mass slavery and used the slaves to aid in hunting and agricultural work.[9][10] The Tang described the Mohe as a fierce and uncultured people who used poisoned arrows.[11]

The two most powerful groups of Mohe were the Heishui Mohe in the north, named after the Heilong River, and the Sumo Mohe in the south, named after the Songhua River. From the Heishui Mohe emerged the Jurchens in the forested mountain areas of eastern Manchuria and Russia's Primorsky Krai.[12] The Wuguo ("Five Nations") federation that existed to the northeast of modern Jilin are also considered to be ancestors of the Jurchens. The Jurchens were mentioned in historical records for the first time in the 10th century as tribute bearers to the Liao, Later Tang, and Song courts. They practiced hunting, fishing, and kept domestic oxen while their primary export was horses. They had no script, calendar, or offices during the mid-11th century. The Jurchens were minor political actors in the international system at the time. By the 10th century, the Jurchens had become vassals of the Liao dynasty, but they also sent a number of tributary and trade missions to the Song capital of Kaifeng, which the Liao tried unsuccessfully to prevent.[13] Some Jurchens paid tribute to Goryeo and sided with the latter during the Khitan–Goryeo War. They offered tribute to both courts out of political necessity and for material benefits.[14]

In the 11th century there was widespread discontent against Khitan rule among the Jurchens as the Liao violently extorted annual tribute from the Jurchen tribes. Leveraging the Jurchens' desire for independence from the Khitans, chief Wugunai (1021–1074) of the Wanyan clan rose to prominence, dominating all of eastern Manchuria from Mount Changbai to the Wuguo tribes. According to tradition, Wugunai was a sixth generation descendant of Hanpu while his father held a military title from the Liao court, although the title did not confer or hold any real power. As described, Wugunai was a great warrior, eater, drinker, and lover of women. His grandson Aguda eventually founded the Jin dynasty.[15]

Wanyan Aguda

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The Jin dynasty was created in modern Jilin and Heilongjiang by the Jurchen tribal chieftain Aguda in 1115. According to tradition, Aguda was a descendant of Hanpu. Aguda adopted the term for "gold" as the name of his state, itself a translation of "Anchuhu" River, which meant "golden" in Jurchen.[16] This river, known as Alechuka in modern Chinese, is a tributary of the Songhua River east of Harbin.[16] Alechuka (阿勒楚喀) is a transliteration of its Manchu name alchuqa (ᠠᠯᠴᡠᡴᠠ), suggesting that the Jurchen name for the river sounded more similar to alchuhu rather than anchuhu. It was common for Chinese translators at the time to use the final -n sound at the end of a Chinese character to transliterate -l, -r, -s, -z etc. at the end of a syllable in foreign words. The Jurchens' early rulers were the Khitan-led Liao dynasty, which had held sway over modern north and northeast China and the Mongolian Plateau, for several centuries. In 1121, the Jurchens entered into the Alliance Conducted at Sea with the Han-led Northern Song dynasty and agreed to jointly invade the Liao dynasty. While the Song armies faltered, the Jurchens succeeded in driving the Liao to Central Asia. In 1125, after the death of Aguda, the Jin dynasty broke its alliance with the Song dynasty and invaded north China. When the Song dynasty reclaimed the Han-populated Sixteen Prefectures, they were "fiercely resisted" by the Han Chinese population there who had previously been under Liao rule, while when the Jurchens invaded that area, the Han Chinese did not oppose them at all and handed over the Southern Capital (present-day Beijing, then known as Yanjing) to them.[17] The Jurchens were supported by the anti-Song, Beijing-based noble Han clans.[18] The Han Chinese who worked for the Liao were viewed as hostile enemies by the Song dynasty.[19] Song Han Chinese also defected to the Jin.[20] One crucial mistake that the Song made during this joint attack was the removal of the defensive forest it originally built along the Song-Liao border. Because of the removal of this landscape barrier, in 1126/27, the Jin army marched quickly across the North China Plain to Bianjing (present-day Kaifeng).[21] On 9 January 1127, the Jurchens ransacked the Imperial palaces in Kaifeng, the capital of the Northern Song dynasty, capturing both Emperor Qinzong and his father, Emperor Huizong, who had abdicated in panic in the face of the Jin invasion. Following the fall of Bianjing, the succeeding Southern Song dynasty continued to fight the Jin dynasty for over a decade, eventually signing the Treaty of Shaoxing in 1141, which called for the cession of all Song territories north of the Huai River to the Jin dynasty and the execution of Song general Yue Fei in return for peace. The peace treaty was formally ratified on 11 October 1142 when a Jin envoy visited the Song court.[22]

Having conquered Kaifeng and occupied northern China, the Jin later deliberately chose earth as its dynastic element and yellow as its royal color. According to the theory of the wuxing ('five elements'), the earth element follows the fire, the dynastic element of the Song, in the sequence of elemental creation. Therefore, this ideological move shows that the Jin regarded the Song reign of China was officially over and themselves as the rightful ruler of China Proper.[23] The decision to choose "earth" (signalling the Jin as successor of the Song) was chosen against the alternative suggestion of linking Jin (literally meaning "gold") with the element of metal. This rejected suggestion was based on a nativist current that distanced the Jin from the Song and interpreted the Jin as an autonomous development rooted in Northeast Asia unrelated to the precedents of Chinese dynasties. However, the emperor dismissed the "metal" suggestion.[24]

Migration south

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After taking over northern China, the Jin became increasingly sinicised. Over the span of twenty years, the new Jurchen ruling class constituted around half of a larger pattern of migration southward into northern China. There, many Jurchens were granted land, which was then organised around a social structure based on hereditary military units: a mouke ('company') was a unit consisting of 300 households, and groups of 7–10 moukes were further organised into meng-an ('battalions').[25] The Jurchen ruling class ruled over an estimated 30 million people. Many Jurchens intermarried with Han Chinese, though the ban on Jurchen nobility marrying outside of their ethnicity was only annulled in 1191.

Following the death of Emperor Taizong in 1135, each of the next three emperors were the remaining grandsons of Aguda, each by a different one of his sons. Emperor Xizong (r. 1135–1149) studied the classics and wrote Chinese poetry. He adopted Han Chinese cultural traditions, but the Jurchen nobles had the top positions. Later in life, Emperor Xizong became an alcoholic and executed many officials for criticising him. He also had Jurchen leaders who opposed him murdered, even those in the Wanyan clan. In 1149 he was murdered by a cabal of relatives and nobles, who made his cousin Wanyan Liang the next Jin emperor. Because of the brutality of both his domestic and foreign policy, Wanyan Liang was posthumously demoted from the position of emperor. Historians have consequently referred to him by his posthumous name "Prince of Hailing".[26]

Rebellions in the north

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The Chengling Pagoda of Zhengding, Hebei, built between 1161 and 1189.

Having usurped the throne, Wanyan Liang embarked on the program of legitimising his rule as an emperor of China. In 1153, he moved the empire's main capital from Huining Prefecture (south of present-day Harbin) to the former Liao capital, Yanjing (present-day Beijing).[26][27] Four years later, in 1157, to emphasise the permanence of the move, he razed the nobles' residences in Huining Prefecture.[26][27] Wanyan Liang also reconstructed the former Song capital, Bianjing (present-day Kaifeng), which had been sacked in 1127, making it the Jin's southern capital.[26]

Wanyan Liang also tried to suppress dissent by killing Jurchen nobles, executing 155 princes.[26] To fulfil his dream of becoming the ruler of all China, Wanyan Liang attacked the Southern Song dynasty in 1161. Meanwhile, two simultaneous rebellions erupted in Shangjing, at the Jurchens' former power base: led by Wanyan Liang's cousin, soon-to-be crowned Wanyan Yong, and the other of Khitan tribesmen. Wanyan Liang had to withdraw Jin troops from southern China to quell the uprisings. The Jin forces were defeated by Song forces in the Battle of Caishi and Battle of Tangdao. With a depleted military force, Wanyan Liang failed to make headway in his attempted invasion of the Southern Song dynasty. Finally he was assassinated by his own generals in December 1161, due to his defeats. His son and heir was also assassinated in the capital.[26]

 
Jin wood structure (model).
 
Jin tomb with stage scene.

Although crowned in October, Wanyan Yong (Emperor Shizong) was not officially recognised as emperor until the murder of Wanyan Liang's heir.[26] The Khitan uprising was not suppressed until 1164; their horses were confiscated so that the rebels had to take up farming. Other Khitan and Xi cavalry units had been incorporated into the Jin army. Because these internal uprisings had severely weakened the Jin's capacity to confront the Southern Song militarily, the Jin court under Emperor Shizong began negotiating for peace. The Treaty of Longxing was signed in 1164, ushering in more than 40 years of peace between the two empires.

In the early 1180s, Emperor Shizong instituted a restructuring of 200 meng'an units to remove tax abuses and help Jurchens. Communal farming was encouraged. The Jin Empire prospered and had a large surplus of grain in reserve. Although learned in Chinese classics, Emperor Shizong was also known as a promoter of Jurchen language and culture; during his reign, a number of Chinese classics were translated into Jurchen, the Imperial Jurchen Academy was founded, and the imperial examinations started to be offered in the Jurchen language.[28] Emperor Shizong's reign (1161–1189) was remembered by the posterity as the time of comparative peace and prosperity, and the emperor himself was compared to the mythological rulers Yao and Shun. Poor Jurchen families in the southern Routes (Daming and Shandong) Battalion and Company households tried to live the lifestyle of wealthy Jurchen families and avoid doing farming work by selling their own Jurchen daughters into slavery and renting their land to Han tenants. The wealthy Jurchens feasted and drank and wore damask and silk. The History of Jin says that Emperor Shizong took note and attempted to halt these things in 1181.[29]

Shizong's grandson, Emperor Zhangzong (r. 1189–1208), venerated Jurchen values, but he also immersed himself in Han Chinese culture and married an ethnic Han Chinese woman. The Taihe Code of law was promulgated in 1201 and was based mostly on the Tang Code. In 1207, the Southern Song dynasty attempted an invasion, but the Jin forces effectively repulsed them. In the peace agreement, the Song dynasty had to pay higher annual indemnities and behead Han Tuozhou, the leader of the hawkish faction in the Song imperial court.

Fall of Jin

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Main article: Mongol conquest of Jin China
class=notpageimage|
The Jin dynasty ( ) and main contemporary Asian polities c. 1205

Starting from the early 13th century, the Jin dynasty began to feel the pressure of Mongols from the north. Genghis Khan first led the Mongols into Western Xia territory in 1205 and ravaged it four years later. In 1211 about 50,000 Mongol horsemen invaded the Jin Empire and began absorbing Khitan and Jurchen rebels. The Jin had a large army with 150,000 cavalry but abandoned the "western capital" Datong (see also the Battle of Yehuling). The next year the Mongols went north and looted the Jin "eastern capital", and in 1213 they besieged the "central capital", Zhongdu (present-day Beijing). In 1214 the Jin made a humiliating treaty but retained the capital. That summer, Emperor Xuanzong abandoned the central capital and moved the government to the "southern capital" Kaifeng, making it the official seat of the Jin dynasty's power.

In 1216, a hawkish faction in the Jin imperial court persuaded Emperor Xuanzong to attack the Song dynasty, but in 1219 they were defeated at the same place by the Yangtze River where Wanyan Liang had been defeated in 1161. The Jin dynasty now faced a two front war that they could not afford. Furthermore, Emperor Aizong won a succession struggle against his brother and then quickly ended the war and went back to the capital. He made peace with the Tanguts of Western Xia, who had been allied with the Mongols.

The Jurchen Jin emperor Wanyan Yongji's daughter, Jurchen Princess Qiguo was married to Mongol leader Genghis Khan in exchange for relieving the Mongol siege of Zhongdu in the Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty.[30]

 
Cai Wenji returning to Han, Jin dynasty painting.

Many Han Chinese and Khitans defected to the Mongols to fight against the Jin dynasty. Two Han Chinese leaders, Shi Tianze and Liu Heima [zh],[31] and the Khitan Xiao Zhala defected and commanded the three tumens in the Mongol army.[32] Liu Heima and Shi Tianze served Genghis Khan's successor, Ögedei Khan.[33] Liu Heima and Shi Tianxiang led armies against Western Xia for the Mongols.[34] There were four Han tumens and three Khitan tumens, with each tumen consisting of 10,000 troops. The three Khitan generals Shimo Beidi'er, Tabuyir, and Xiao Zhongxi [zh] (Xiao Zhala's son) commanded the three Khitan tumens and the four Han generals Zhang Rou [zh], Yan Shi [zh], Shi Tianze and Liu Heima commanded the four Han tümens under Ögedei Khan.[35][36][37][38][better source needed]

Shi Tianze was a Han Chinese who lived under Jin rule. Inter-ethnic marriage between Han Chinese and Jurchens became common at this time. His father was Shi Bingzhi. Shi Bingzhi married a Jurchen woman (surname Nahe) and a Han Chinese woman (surname Zhang); it is unknown which of them was Shi Tianze's mother.[39] Shi Tianze was married to two Jurchen women, a Han Chinese woman, and a Korean woman, and his son Shi Gang was born to one of his Jurchen wives.[40] His Jurchen wives' surnames were Monian and Nahe, his Korean wife's surname was Li, and his Han Chinese wife's surname was Shi.[39] Shi Tianze defected to the Mongol forces upon their invasion of the Jin dynasty. His son, Shi Gang, married a Keraite woman; the Keraites were Mongolified Turkic people and considered as part of the "Mongol nation".[40][41] Shi Tianze, Zhang Rou, Yan Shi and other Han Chinese who served in the Jin dynasty and defected to the Mongols helped build the structure for the administration of the new Mongol state.[42]

The Mongols created a Han army out of defecting Jin troops, and another army out of defected Song troops called the "Newly Submitted Army" (新附軍).[43]

Genghis Khan died in 1227 while his armies were attacking Western Xia. His successor, Ögedei Khan, invaded the Jin dynasty again in 1232 with assistance from the Southern Song dynasty. The Jurchens tried to resist; but when the Mongols besieged Kaifeng in 1233, Emperor Aizong fled south to the city of Caizhou. A Song–Mongol allied army surrounded the capital, and the next year Emperor Aizong committed suicide by hanging himself to avoid being captured in the Mongols besieged Caizhou, ending the Jin dynasty in 1234.[26] The territory of the Jin dynasty was to be divided between the Mongols and the Song dynasty. However, due to lingering territorial disputes, the Song dynasty and the Mongols eventually went to war with one another over these territories.

Government

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See also: Military of the Jin dynasty (1115–1234)

The government of the Jin dynasty merged Jurchen customs with institutions adopted from the Liao and Song dynasties.[44] The pre-dynastic Jurchen government was based on the quasi-egalitarian tribal council.[45] Jurchen society at the time did not have a strong political hierarchy. The Shuo Fu (說郛) records that the Jurchen tribes were not ruled by central authority and locally elected their chieftains.[44] Tribal customs were retained after Aguda united the Jurchen tribes and formed the Jin dynasty, coexisting alongside more centralised institutions.[46] The Jin dynasty had five capitals, a practice they adopted from the Balhae and the Liao.[47] The Jin had to overcome the difficulties of controlling a multicultural empire composed of territories once ruled by the Liao and Northern Song. The solution of the early Jin government was to establish separate government structures for different ethnic groups.[48]

The Jin court maintained a clear separation between the sedentary population who had lived under Liao rule, and the sedentary population who formerly lived under Northern Song rule but had never been under Liao rule. The former they referred to as hanren or yanren while the latter they referred to as nanren.[49]

Culture

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Because the Jin had few contacts with its southern neighbour, the Song dynasty, different cultural developments took place in both states. Within Confucianism, the Neo-Confucian "Learning of the Way" that developed and became orthodox in Song did not take root in Jin. Jin scholars put more emphasis on the work of northern Song scholar and poet Su Shi (1037–1101) rather than on Zhu Xi's (1130–1200) scholarship that constituted the foundation of the Learning of the Way.[50]

Architecture

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The Jin pursued a revival of Tang dynasty urban design with architectural projects in Kaifeng and Zhongdu (modern Beijing), building for instance a bell tower and drum tower to announce the night curfew (which was revived after being abolished under the Song).[51] The Jurchens followed Khitan precedent of living in tents amidst the Chinese-style architecture, which were in turn based on the Song dynasty Kaifeng model.[52]

Religion

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Jin dynasty fresco of a bodhisattva from Chongfu Temple (崇福寺), Shuozhou, Shanxi

Taoism

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A significant branch of Taoism called the Quanzhen School was founded under the Jin Dynasty by Han Chinese Wang Zhe (1113–1170), founder of formal congregations in 1167 and 1168. He took the nickname of Wang Chongyang (Wang "Double Yang") and his disciples were retrospectively known as the "seven patriarchs of Quanzhen". The ci poetry that characterized Jin literature was tightly linked to Quanzhen: two-thirds of the ci poetry written in Jin times was composed by Quanzhen Taoists.

 
Jade ornament with flower design, Jin dynasty, Shanghai Museum
 
Chinese gold plates and a chalice from the Jin Dynasty's Zhongdu.
 
Jin tomb with stage scene.

The Jin state sponsored an edition of the Taoist Canon that is known as the Precious Canon of the Mysterious Metropolis of the Great Jin (Da Jin Xuandu baozang 大金玄都宝藏). Based on a smaller version of the Canon printed by Emperor Huizong (r. 1100–1125) of the Song, it was completed in 1192 under the direction and support of Emperor Zhangzong (r. 1190–1208).[53] In 1188, Zhangzong's grandfather and predecessor Shizong (r. 1161–1189) ordered for the Song Canon woodblocks to be transferred from the Jin southern capital Kaifeng (the former Northern Song capital) to the central capital's "Abbey of Celestial Perpetuity" (Tianchang guan 天长观), on the site of what is now the White Cloud Temple in Beijing.[53] Other Daoist writings were also moved there from another abbey in the central capital.[53] Zhangzong instructed the abbey's superintendent Sun Mingdao (孙明道) and two civil officials to prepare a complete Canon for printing.[53] After sending people on a "nationwide search for scriptures" that yielded 1,074 fascicles of text that had not been included in the Huizong edition of the Canon and also securing donations to fund the new printing, Sun Mingdao proceeded to have the new woodblocks cut in 1192.[54] The final print consisted of 6,455 fascicles.[55] Despite records that the Jin emperors offered copies of the Canon as gifts, not a single fragment of it is known to have survived.[55]

Buddhism

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A Buddhist Canon or "Tripitaka" was also produced in Shanxi, the same place where an enhanced version of the Jin-sponsored Taoist Canon would be reprinted in 1244.[56] The project was initiated in 1139 by a Buddhist nun named Cui Fazhen, who swore (and allegedly "broke her arm to seal the oath") that she would raise the necessary funds to make a new official edition of the Canon printed by the Northern Song.[57] Completed in 1173, the Jin Tripitaka counted about 7,000 fascicles, "a major achievement in the history of Buddhist private printing."[57] It was further expanded during the Yuan dynasty.[57]

Buddhism thrived during the Jin period, both in its relation with the imperial court and in society in general.[58] Many sutras were also carved on stone tablets.[59] The donors who funded such inscriptions included members of the Jin imperial family, high officials, common people, and Buddhist priests.[59] Some sutras have only survived from these carvings and thus they are important in the study of Chinese Buddhism.[59] At the same time, the Jin court sold monk certificates for revenue. This practice was initiated in 1162 by Emperor Shizong to fund his wars, and stopped three years later when the wars were over.[60] His successor Zhanzong used the same method to raise military funds in 1197 and again one year later to raise money to fight famine in the Western Capital.[60] The same practice was used again in 1207 (to fight the Song and more famine) as well as under the reigns of emperors Weishao (r. 1209–1213) and Xuanzong (r. 1213–1224) to fight the Mongols.[61]

Fashion

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Main article: Fashion in the Jurchen Jin dynasty

List of emperors

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Sovereigns of the Jin dynasty 1115–1234
Temple name Posthumous name1 Jurchen name Chinese name Years of reign Era names and years
Taizu (太祖) Wuyuan (武元) Aguda (阿骨打) Min (旻) 1115–1123 Shouguo (收國; 1115–1116)
Tianfu (天輔; 1117–1123)
Taizong (太宗) Wenlie (文烈) Wuqimai (吳乞買) Sheng (晟) 1123–1135 Tianhui (天會; 1123–1135)
Xizong (熙宗) Xiaocheng (孝成) Hela (合剌) Dan (亶) 1135–1149 Tianhui (天會; 1135–1138)
Tianjuan (天眷; 1138–1141)
Huangtong (皇統; 1141–1149)
Jingzu (景祖) Yang (炀) Digunai (迪古乃) Liang (亮) 1149–1161 Tiande (天德, 1149–1153)
Zhenyuan (貞元; 1153–1156)
Zhenglong (正隆; 1156–1161)
Shizong (世宗) Renxiao (仁孝) Wulu (烏祿) Yong (雍) 1161–1189 Dading (大定; 1161–1189)
Zhangzong (章宗) Guangxiao (光孝) Madage (麻達葛) Jing (璟) 1189–1208 Mingchang (明昌; 1190–1196) 
Cheng'an (承安; 1196–1200) 
Taihe (泰和; 1200–1208)
None – Unknown Yongji (永濟) 1208–1213 Da'an (大安; 1209–1212)
Chongqing (崇慶; 1212–1213)
Zhining (至寧; 1213)
Xuanzong
宣宗 		Shengxiao (聖孝) Wudubu (吾睹補) Xun (珣) 1213–1224 Zhenyou (貞祐; 1213–1217)
Xingding (興定; 1217–1222) 
Yuanguang (元光; 1222–1224)
Aizong (哀宗, official)
Zhuangzong (莊宗, unofficial)
Minzong (閔宗, unofficial)
Yizong (義宗, unofficial) 		None Ningjiasu (寧甲速) Shouxu (守緒) 1224–1234 Zhengda (正大; 1224–1232)
Kaixing (開興; 1232)
Tianxing (天興; 1232–1234)
None Ai (哀) Hudun (呼敦) Chenglin (承麟) 1234 Shengchang (盛昌; 1234)
1: For full posthumous names, see the articles for individual emperors.

Emperors family tree

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Emperors family tree
Wanyan Hanpu 函普
Shizu 始祖
Wanyan Wulu 乌鲁
Dedi 德皇帝
Wanyan Bahai 完颜跋海
Andi 安皇帝
Wanyan Suike 綏可
Xianzu 獻祖
Wanyan Shilu 完颜石鲁
Zhaozu 昭祖
Wanyan Wugunai 完颜乌骨迺
Jingzu 景祖
~1050–1021–1074
Wanyan Helibo 完颜劾里钵
Shizu 世祖
1039–1074–1092		Wanyan Polashu 完顏頗刺淑
Suzong 肅宗
1042–1092–1094		Wanyan Yingge 完颜盈歌
Muzong 穆宗
1053–1094–1103		Wanyan Hezhe
完顏劾者
d.1121
Wanyan Wuyashu 完顏烏雅束
Kangzong 康宗
1061–1103–1113		Wanyan Aguda 完颜阿骨打
Taizu 太祖
1068-(born 1113)1115–1123		Wanyan Wuqimai 完顏吳乞買
Taizong 太宗
1075–1123–1135		□Wanyan Sagai
完顏撒改
Wanyan Zongjun 完颜宗峻 d.1124
Huizong 徽宗		Wanyan Zonggan 完颜宗干 d.1141
Dezong 德宗		Wanyan Zongfu 完顏宗辅 1096–1135
Ruizong 睿宗		Wanyan Nianhan
完颜粘罕
1080–1136
Wanyan Hela 完顏合剌
Xizong 熙宗
1119–1135–1149		Wanyan Liang 完顏亮
Prince of Hailing 海陵王
1122–1149–1161		Wanyan Yong 完顏雍
Shizong 世宗
1123–1161–1189
Wanyan Yungong 完顏允恭
1146–1185
Xianzong 顯宗		Wanyan Yongji 完顏永濟
Prince Shao of Wei 衛紹王
1168–1209–1213
Wanyan Jing 完顏璟
Zhangzong 章宗
1168–1190–1208		Wanyan Xun 完顏珣
Xuanzong 宣宗
1163–1213–1223
Wanyan Shouxu 完顏守緒 1234
Aizong 哀宗
1198–1224–1234
Wanyan Chenglin 完顏承麟
Mo 末帝
r.1234; d.1234

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ Also Jin Empire (金國; Jīn guó; Jurchen: Anchun Gurun or Alchun Gurun[3])
  2. ^ In English, its name is sometimes written as "Kin", "Jinn", or "Chin"[4] in order to differentiate it from the earlier Jin dynasty (266–420), whose name is written identically in pinyin without tone marks.

References

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Citations

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  1. ^ Twitchett & Fairbank 1994, p. 40.
  2. ^ "Jin". Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.
  3. ^ Grousset, René (1970), A History of Central Asia (Repr. ed.), Rutgers University Press, p. 136, ISBN 978-0-8135-1304-1
  4. ^ Franke 1994b, pp. 215–320.
  5. ^ René Grousset (1970), A History of Central Asia (reprint, illustrated ed.), Rutgers University Press, p. 136, ISBN 978-0-8135-1304-1
  6. ^ Zhao 2006, p. 7.
  7. ^ Zhao 2006, p. 6.
  8. ^ Zhao 2006, p. 24.
  9. ^ Gorelova 2002, pp. 13–14.
  10. ^ Crossley 1997, p. 17.
  11. ^ Crossley 1997, p. 124.
  12. ^ Crossley 1997, pp. 18–20.
  13. ^ Franke 1994b, pp. 217–220.
  14. ^ Breuker 2010, pp. 220–221.
  15. ^ Franke 1994b, p. 220.
  16. ^ a b Franke 1994b, p. 221.
  17. ^ Franke 1994a, p. 39.
  18. ^ Tillman 1995a, pp. 28–.
  19. ^ Elliott, Mark (2012), "8. Hushuo The Northern Other and the Naming of the Han Chinese" (PDF), in Mullaney, Tomhas S.; Leibold, James; Gros, Stéphane; Bussche, Eric Vanden (eds.), Critical Han Studies The History, Representation, and Identity of China's Majority, University of California Press, p. 186
  20. ^ Gernet 1996, pp. 358–.
  21. ^ Chen, Yuan Julian (2018), "Frontier, Fortification, and Forestation: Defensive Woodland on the Song–Liao Border in the Long Eleventh Century", Journal of Chinese History, 2 (2): 313–334, doi:10.1017/jch.2018.7313-334&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info:doi/10.1017/jch.2018.7&rft.aulast=Chen&rft.aufirst=Yuan Julian&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Jin dynasty (1115–1234)" class="Z3988">
  22. ^ Hymes, Robert (2000), John Stewart Bowman (ed.), Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture, Columbia University Press, p. 34, ISBN 978-0-231-11004-4
  23. ^ Chen, Yuan Julian (2014), "Legitimation Discourse and the Theory of the Five Elements in Imperial China", Journal of Song-Yuan Studies, 44 (1): 325–364, doi:10.1353/sys.2014.0000325-364&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info:doi/10.1353/sys.2014.0000&rft.aulast=Chen&rft.aufirst=Yuan Julian&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Jin dynasty (1115–1234)" class="Z3988">
  24. ^ Hok-lam Chan (1984). Legitimation in Imperial China: Discussions Under The Jurchen-Chin Dynasty. University of Washington Press. ISBN 9780295961491.
  25. ^ Mark C. Elliot (2001), The Manchu Way: The eight banners and ethnic identity in late imperial China, Stanford University Press, p. 60
  26. ^ a b c d e f g h Beck, Sanderson, "Liao, Xi Xia, and Jin Dynasties 907–1234", China 7 BC To 1279
  27. ^ a b Tao (1976), p. 44
  28. ^ Tao (1976), Chapter 6. "The Jurchen Movement for Revival", pp. 69–83
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  30. ^ Broadbridge, Anne F. (2018). Women and the Making of the Mongol Empire (illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 94. ISBN 978-1-108-63662-9.
  31. ^ Collectif (2002). Revue bibliographique de sinologie 2001. Éditions de l'École des hautes études en sciences sociales. p. 147.
  32. ^ May, Timothy Michael (2004). The Mechanics of Conquest and Governance: The Rise and Expansion of the Mongol Empire, 1185–1265. University of Wisconsin–Madison. p. 50.
  33. ^ Schram, Stuart Reynolds (1987). Foundations and Limits of State Power in China. European Science Foundation by School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. p. 130.
  34. ^ Gary Seaman; Daniel Marks (1991). Rulers from the steppe: state formation on the Eurasian periphery. Ethnographics Press, Center for Visual Anthropology, University of Southern California. p. 175.
  35. ^ 胡小鹏 (2001). "窝阔台汗己丑年汉军万户萧札剌考辨–兼论金元之际的汉地七万户" [A Study of XIAO Zha-la the Han Army Commander of 10,000 Families in the Year of 1229 during the Period of Khan (O)gedei]. 西北师大学报(社会科学版) PKUCSSCI [Journal of Northwest Normal University (Social Sciences)] (in Chinese). 38 (6). doi:10.3969/j.issn.1001-9162.2001.06.008. Archived from the original on 2 August 2016. Retrieved 3 May 2016.
  36. ^ "窝阔台汗己丑年汉军万户萧札剌考辨–兼论金元之际的汉地七万户-国家哲学社会科学学术期刊数据库". Archived from the original on 13 April 2020. Retrieved 3 May 2016.
  37. ^ "新元史/卷146 – 維基文庫, 自由的圖書館". zh.wikisource.org.
  38. ^ "作品相关 第二十九章 大库里台. 本章出自《草原特种兵》" [Chapter 29 Big Curry Terrace. This chapter is from Grassland Special Forces] (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 3 May 2016.
  39. ^ a b Igor de Rachewiltz, ed. (1993). In the Service of the Khan: Eminent Personalities of the Early Mongol-Yüan Period (1200–1300). Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 41.
  40. ^ a b J. Ganim; S. Legassie, eds. (2013). Cosmopolitanism and the Middle Ages. Springer. p. 47.
  41. ^ Watt, James C. Y. (2010). The World of Khubilai Khan: Chinese Art in the Yuan Dynasty. Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 14.
  42. ^ Chan, Hok-Lam (1997). "A Recipe to Qubilai Qa'an on Governance: The Case of Chang Te-hui and Li Chih". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. 7 (2). Cambridge University Press: 257–283. doi:10.1017/S1356186300008877. S2CID 161851226.257-283&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info:doi/10.1017/S1356186300008877&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161851226#id-name=S2CID&rft.aulast=Chan&rft.aufirst=Hok-Lam&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Jin dynasty (1115–1234)" class="Z3988">
  43. ^ Hucker, Charles O. (1985). A Dictionary of Official Titles in Imperial China. Stanford University Press. p. 66.
  44. ^ a b Franke 1994b, p. 265.
  45. ^ Franke 1994b, pp. 265–266.
  46. ^ Franke 1994b, p. 266.
  47. ^ Franke 1994b, p. 270.
  48. ^ Franke 1994b, p. 267.
  49. ^ Thomas Mullaney, James Patrick Leibold, Stéphane Gros, Eric Armand Vanden Bussche (2012). Critical Han Studies. University of California Press. pp. 186–187. ISBN 9780520289758.186-187&rft.pub=University of California Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9780520289758&rft.au=Thomas Mullaney, James Patrick Leibold, Stéphane Gros, Eric Armand Vanden Bussche&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Jin dynasty (1115–1234)" class="Z3988">{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  50. ^ Tillman 1995b, pp. &#91, page needed&#93, .
  51. ^ Nelson, Robert S.; Olin, Margaret (2003), Monuments and Memory, Made and Unmade, University of Chicago Press, p. 119, ISBN 978-0-226-57158-4
  52. ^ Lincoln, Toby (2021), An Urban History of China, Cambridge University Press, p. 89, ISBN 978-1-107-19642-1
  53. ^ a b c d Boltz 2008, p. 291.
  54. ^ Boltz 2008, pp. 291–92.
  55. ^ a b Boltz 2008, p. 292.
  56. ^ Yao 1995, p. 174; Goossaert 2008, p. 916 (both Buddhist Canon and Daoist Canon printed in Shanxi).
  57. ^ a b c Yao 1995, p. 174.
  58. ^ Yao 1995, p. 173.
  59. ^ a b c Yao 1995, p. 175.
  60. ^ a b Yao 1995, p. 161.
  61. ^ Yao 1995, pp. 161–62.

Sources

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  • Boltz, Judith (2008), "Da Jin Xuandu baozang 大金玄嘟寶藏", in Pregadio, Fabrizio (ed.), The Encyclopedia of Taoism, London: Routledge, pp. 291–292, ISBN 978-0-7007-1200-7291-292&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-7007-1200-7&rft.aulast=Boltz&rft.aufirst=Judith&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Jin dynasty (1115–1234)" class="Z3988">.
  • Breuker, Remco E. (2010), Establishing a Pluralist Society in Medieval Korea, 918–1170: History, Ideology and Identity in the Koryŏ Dynasty, Korean Studies Library, vol. 1, Leiden: Brill, pp. 220-221, ISBN 978-9-004-18325-4
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    • Tillman, Hoyt Cleveland (1995a). "An Overview of Chin History and Institutions". In Tillman & West (1995), pp. 23–38.
    • Tillman, Hoyt Cleveland (1995b). "Confucianism under the Chin and the Impact of Sung Confucian Tao-hsüeh". In Tillman & West (1995), pp. 71–114.
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Further reading

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Preceded by Dynasties in Chinese history
1115–1234 		Succeeded by
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