Wikipedia

Hungry ghost

This article is about the concept in Chinese religions. For other uses, see Hungry Ghosts (disambiguation). For the Buddhist variant and for the Hindu variant, see Preta.

Hungry ghost is a term in Buddhism and Chinese traditional religion, representing beings who are driven by intense emotional needs in an animalistic way. The terms 餓鬼 èguǐ literally "hungry ghost", are the Chinese translation of the Sanskrit term preta[1] in Buddhism. "Hungry ghosts" play a role in Chinese Buddhism, Taoism, and in Chinese folk religion. The term is not to be confused with the generic term for "ghost" or damnation, 鬼 guǐ (i.e. the residual spirit of a deceased ancestor). The understanding is that people first become a regular ghost when they die[2] and then slowly weaken and eventually die a second time.[3][4] The hungry ghosts, along with animals and hell beings, consists of the three realms of existence no one desires.[5][6] In these realms it is extremely difficult to be reborn in a better realm (i.e. the realm of humans, asura or deva) because it is nearly impossible to perform deeds that cultivate good karma.[7]

Hungry ghost
7th month Hungry Ghost Festival offerings in Singapore.
GroupingLegendary creature
Sub groupingNocturnal, revenant
Similar entitiesKrasue and Kalag
FolkloreChinese Buddhism, Chinese traditional religion
CountryChina
RegionEast Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia

With the rise in popularity of Buddhism, the idea that souls would live in space until reincarnation became popular .[4] In the Taoist tradition, it is believed that hungry ghosts can arise from people whose deaths have been violent or unhappy. Both Buddhism[4] and Taoism[8] share the idea that hungry ghosts can emerge from neglect or desertion of ancestors. According to the Hua-yen Sutra evil deeds will cause a soul to be reborn in one of six different realms.[9] The highest degree of evil deed will cause a soul to be reborn as a denizen of hell, a lower degree of evil will cause a soul to be reborn as an animal, and the lowest degree will cause a soul to be reborn as a hungry ghost.[10] According to the tradition, evil deeds that lead to becoming a hungry ghost are killing, stealing and sexual misconduct. Desire, greed, anger and ignorance are all factors in causing a soul to be reborn as a hungry ghost because they are motives for people to perform evil deeds.[2] The biggest factor is greed as hungry ghosts are ever discontent and anguished because they are unable to satify their feelings of greed.[11]

Some traditions imagine hungry ghosts living inside the bowels of earth or they live in the midst of humans but go unnoticed by those around them or they choose to distance themselves.[12]

Myths of origin

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There are many legends regarding the origin of hungry ghosts. It is likely that the idea of hungry ghosts originated from ancient Indian culture, where they were referred to as Preta.[citation needed]

In the Buddhist tradition, hungry ghosts appear in stories from the Chuan-chi po-yuan ching ("Sutra of One Hundred Selected Legends") that is from the early third century.[13][page needed] Some examples of these stories are as follows:

Once, a rich man who travelled was selling sugar-cane juice. One day, a monk came to his house in search of some juice to cure an illness. The man had to leave, so he instructed his wife to give the monk the drink in his absence. Instead of doing this, she secretly urinated in the monk's bowl, added sugar cane juice to it and gave it to the monk. The monk was not deceived; he poured out the bowl and left. When the wife died, she was reborn as a hungry ghost.[13][page needed]

Another such tale is of a man who was giving and kind. One day, he was about to leave his house when a monk came by begging. The man instructed his wife to give the monk some food. After the man left his house, his wife was overcome with greed. She took it upon herself to teach the monk a lesson, so she locked the monk in an empty room all day with no food. She was reborn as a hungry ghost for innumerable lifetimes.[13][page needed]

The legends often speak of hungry ghosts who, in a previous lifetime, were greedy women who refused to give away food.[13][page needed] Other stories in the Buddhist tradition come from Kuei wen mu-lien ching ("The Sutra on the Ghosts Questioning Mu-lien"). One of the stories tells of a diviner who constantly misled people due to his own avarice, and thus, he was reborn as a hungry ghost.[4] Another story in "The Legend of Mu-lien Entering the City and Seeing Five Hundred Hungry Ghosts" is about five hundred men that were sons of elders of the city they lived in. When monks came begging to the city for food, the sons denied them because they thought the monks would keep coming back and eventually take all their food. After the sons died, they were reborn as hungry ghosts.[4]

Avadānaśataka "One Hundred Stories"

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The Avadānaśataka is one of the earliest collections of stories about hungry ghosts and was compiled by a Buddhist monk from northwest India between the second and fourth centuries CE. The stories in this work may have functioned as a prescription for appropriate behaviour. The text is divided into ten "decades", the fifth decade being stories that concern hungry ghosts. This part of the Avadānaśataka recounts the bad thoughts and behavior the hungry ghosts have cultivated in their human existence which led them to the hungry ghost realm. The accumulation of malignancy or meanness is called mātsarya.[14][15]

The notion of mātsarya in this volume is explained to understand the logic of mātsarya's development, the actions it envokes, the suffering it causes and in which ways it can be eradicated. Therefore, it describes the causal chain (pratītyasamutpāda) that leads to the existence of a hungry ghost. At the end of nearly every story the phrase "Work hard to get rid of your mātsarya!"[16] is repeated.[17]

In China

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See also: Ghost Festival

In Chinese Buddhism, The World of the Hungry Ghosts (鬼法界, 鬼界) is one of the six domains of the desire realm of Buddhism.[18] The oral tradition of Chinese ancestral worship believes that the ghosts of the ancestors may be granted permission to return to the world of the living at a certain time of the year. If the spirits are hungry and not given sufficient offerings by their living relatives, they take what they can from the world.[19]

A festival called the Hungry Ghost Festival (simplified Chinese: 盂兰盆; traditional Chinese: 盂蘭盆; pinyin: Yúlánpén is held to honor the hungry ancestor ghosts and food and drink is put out to satisfy their needs. The Hungry Ghost Festival is celebrated during the seventh month of the Chinese calendar. It also falls at the same time as a full moon, the new season, the fall harvest, the peak of monastic asceticism, the rebirth of ancestors, and the assembly of the local community.[20] According to tradition, during this month, the gates of hell are opened up and the hungry ghosts are free to roam the earth where they seek food and entertainment. These ghosts are believed to be ancestors of those who have forgotten to pay tribute to them after they died. They have long thin necks because they have not been fed by their families. Tradition states that families should offer prayers to their deceased relatives and burn "hell money". It is believed that "hell money" is a valid currency in the underworld and helps ghosts to live comfortably in the afterlife. People also burn other forms of joss paper such as paper houses, cars and televisions to please the ghosts.[21] This festival is one of numerous tantric practices from Chinese Esoteric Buddhism preserved in modern Chinese Buddhism after the various Buddhist traditions started to merge in the early modern period.[22]

Families also pay tribute to other unknown wandering ghosts so that these homeless souls do not intrude on their lives and bring misfortune. A big feast is held for the ghosts on the 15th day of the seventh month, where people bring samples of food and place them on the offering table to please the ghosts and ward off bad luck. Live shows are also put on and everyone is invited to attend. The first row of seats is always empty as this is where the ghosts are supposed to sit to better enjoy the live entertainment. The shows are always put on at night and at high volumes, so that the sound attracts and pleases the ghosts.[23] These acts were better known as "Merry-making".[24]

 
Offerings are prepared for hungry ghosts during Ghost month in Hong Kong.

The chief Taoist priest of the town wears an ornate crown of five gold and red panels, a practice borrowed from Buddhism. This represented the five most powerful deities (The Jade Emperor, Lord Guan, Tu Di Gong, Mazu and Xi Wangmu). He is believed to become their voice on earth.[21]

 
A performance held during Ghost month in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. People are not supposed to sit in the red chairs at the front because they are reserved for the "hungry ghosts."

A sacrificial altar and a chair are built for a priest either at a street entrance or in front of the village. The Bodhisattva Ksitigarbha sits in front of the chair. Under the chair are plates of rice flour and peaches. Sitting on the altar are three spirit tablets and three funeral banners. After noon, sheep, pigs, chicken, fruits, and cakes are donated by families that are displayed on the altar. A priest will put a triangular paper banner of three colors with special characters on every sacrifice. After the music begins to play, the priest hits the bell to call the hungry ghosts back to the table. He then throws the rice and peaches into the air in all directions to distribute them to the ghosts.[24]

During the evening, incense is burnt in front of the doors of households. Incense stands for prosperity, the more incense burnt, the greater one's prosperity.[24] During the festival, shops are closed to leave the streets open for the ghosts. In the middle of each street stands an altar of incense with fresh fruit and sacrifices displayed on it. Behind the altar, monks will sing songs that it is believed only the ghosts can understand. This rite is called shi ge'r, meaning "singing ghost songs".[24]

Fifteen days after the feast, to make sure all the hungry ghosts find their way back to hell, people float lanterns on water and set them outside their houses. These lanterns are made by setting a lotus flower-shaped lantern on a piece of board. Hungry ghosts are believed to have found their way back when the lanterns go out.[24]

There are many folk beliefs and taboos surrounding the Hungry Ghost Festival. Spirits are thought to be dangerous, and can take many forms, including snakes, moths, birds, foxes, wolves, and tigers. Some can even use the guise of a beautiful man or woman to seduce and possess. One story refers to a ghost which takes the form of a pretty girl and seduces a young man until a priest intervenes and sends the spirit back to hell. It is believed that possession can cause illness and/or mental disorders.[25]

During the seventh month of the Chinese calendar, children are advised (usually by an elder in the family) to be home before dark, and not to wander the streets at night for fear a ghost might possess them. Swimming is thought to be dangerous as well, as spirits are believed to have drowned people. People will generally avoid driving at night, for fear of a "collision", or spiritual offence, which is any event leading to illness or misfortune.[26] While "ghost" is a commonly used term throughout the year, many people use the phrase "backdoor god" or "good brother" instead during the 7th month, so as not to anger the ghosts. Another thing to avoid is sampling any of the food placed on the offering table, as doing this can result in "mysterious illness". Any person attending a show at indoor entertainment venues (getais) will notice the first row of chairs is left empty. These seats are reserved for the spirits, and it is considered bad form to sit in them. After an offering has been burnt for the spirits, stepping on or near the burnt area should be avoided, as it is considered an "opening" to the spirit world and touching it may cause the person to be possessed.[citation needed]

The English term has often been used metaphorically to describe the insatiable craving of an addict.[27]

In Tibet

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In Tibetan Buddhism, Hungry Ghosts (Tib. ཡི་དྭགས་, Wyl. yi dwags, Sanskrit: preta) have their own realm depicted on the Bhavacakra and are represented as teardrop or paisley-shaped with bloated stomachs and necks too thin to pass food so that attempting to eat is also incredibly painful. Some are described as having "mouths the size of a needle's eye and a stomach the size of a mountain". This is a metaphor for people futilely attempting to fulfill their illusory physical desires.

According to the History of Buddhism, as elements of Chinese Buddhism entered a dialogue with Indian Buddhism in the Tibetan Plateau, this synthesis is evident in the compassion rendered in the form of blessed remains of food, etc., offered to the pretas in rites such as Ganachakra. [citation needed]

In Mahayana Buddhism Chenrezig offers the hungry ghosts the nectar flowing from his fingers that relieves their suffering. This buddha helps the hungry ghosts as he is the manifestation of the Lotus Family that has the special ability to support those who suffer, in this case the hungry ghost realm that is filled with suffering. This nectar symbolises purification which is able to cleanse all negativities, karma, obscurations, and defilements.[28]

In Japan

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Image from a Japanese scroll which describes the realm of the hungry ghosts and how to placate them. Currently housed at the Kyoto National Museum, artist unknown.

In Japanese Buddhism, the Hungry Ghosts are considered to have two variants: the gaki and the jikininki. Gaki (餓鬼) are the spirits of jealous or greedy people who, as punishment for their mortal vices, have been cursed with an insatiable hunger for a particular substance or object. Traditionally, this is something repugnant or humiliating, such as human corpses or feces, though in more recent legends, it may be virtually anything, no matter how bizarre. Jikininki (食人鬼 "people-eating ghosts") are the spirits of greedy, selfish or impious individuals who are cursed after death to seek out and eat human corpses. They do this at night, scavenging for newly dead bodies and food offerings left for the dead. They sometimes also loot the corpses they eat for valuables. Nevertheless, jikininki lament their condition and hate their repugnant cravings for dead human flesh. [citation needed]

The Hungry Ghosts Scroll kept at the Kyoto National Museum depicts the world of the hungry ghosts and the suffering of these creatures, and contains tales of salvation of the ghosts. The whole scroll has been designated as National Treasure of Japan and it was possibly part of a set of scrolls depicting the six realms which was kept at Sanjūsangen-dō.[29]

LaFleur comments that these depictions symbolise that hungry ghosts are not just hungry but they are constituted by their very hunger. Unlike mankind's hunger that comes and goes for hungry ghosts "there is only an ongoing, alleviated gnawing of the stomach and parching of the throat." The body of the hungry ghost is important as it has a huge stomach and a throat as narrow as a needle which leaves the hungry ghost in the dilemma of always having appetite but no way to ever satisfy that hunger.[30] The hungry ghost depicted in art in medieval Japan were thought of as "consumer of fires" because they mistook fire for something edible in their constant strive to satisfy their hunger. This only makes their hunger worse, they start to emit fire from their mouths and start to consume even more fire.[31] LaFleur interprets that the art of hungry ghosts might have provided viewers of a look into the world they inhabit and which they normally do not see clearly. Therefore, the images might offer the insights that hungry ghosts interact with the world of humans from their world and that the human realm is oblivious to these beings affecting them.[32]

Types of spirits

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See also: List of supernatural beings in Chinese folklore and Ghosts in Chinese culture § Types of ghosts
 
Section of the Hungry Ghosts Scroll depicting one of the thirty-six types of hungry ghosts who constantly seeks water to drink and explaining how those who have been born as such are saved by the offerings of the living. Kyoto Museum

It is believed that the soul contains elements of both yin and yang. The yin is the kui, or demon part, and the yang is the shen, or spirit part. When death occurs, the kui should return to earth, and the shen to the grave or family shrine. If a ghost is neglected, it will become a kui. The shen, or ancestral spirit, watches over its descendants, and can bring good fortune if properly worshipped.[25]

Hungry ghosts are different from the ghosts of Chinese which all people are believed to become after death.

According to the Nyāyānusāriṇī, there are three main groups of hungry ghosts, each of which are divided into three sub-groups:[2][33]

  • ghosts of no wealth (無財鬼)
    • torch or flaming mouths (炬口鬼): These ghosts regurgitate fierce flames with mouths of inextinguishable embers. Their bodies are like that of a palmyra tree. This is the karmic result of stinginess.
    • needle mouths (針口鬼): These ghosts have bellies as vast as mountain valleys. Their mouth are like the hole of a needle. Even if they find food or drink, they cannot consume it. Thus they suffer from hunger and thirst.
    • putrid mouths (臭口鬼): These ghosts give off a great decomposing odor from their mouths. They may be found at privies overflowing with filth and fecal matter. They constantly emit a nauseating, evil fumes. Although they find food, they cannot eat it. This fills them with anger and they run about shrieking.
  • ghosts of little wealth (少財鬼)
    • needle hair (針毛鬼): These ghosts have bodies made of hair, firm like spears. They are unapproachable. Their insides burn, as a deer shot with a poison arrow. They run about suffering from ulcers. Only small quantities of impure food can allay their hunger.
    • putrid hair (臭毛鬼): These ghosts also have bodies made of hair that smells incredibly foul. Their flesh and bones emit noxious fumes and their bowels are full of grime. They are agitated from poison in their throats and their skin splits when their hair is pulled out. Only small quantities of impure food can allay their hunger.
    • swollen (癭鬼): Large protuberances grow in their throats. They suffer from aches and fever. They smell of pus that gushes forth from their bodies. They fight with each other over food. They consume small bits of pus and blood and can be somewhat satiated.
  • ghosts of much wealth (多財鬼)
    • ghosts of sacrifices (希祠鬼): These ghosts live off sacrifices offered by humans. One is reborn here by ethically gathering wealth, but with a stingy heart does not practice generosity. If one is reborn here, their descendants can make offerings to satiate their hunger.
    • ghosts of losses (希棄鬼): These ghosts are always covetous, searching out filth like vomit and feces to eat. In life, they sought out and found enjoyment in both clean and unclean things, and were thus reborn here.
    • ghosts of great power (大勢鬼): includes certain yakshas, rakshasas, kumbhandas and the like who are the powerful rulers of the spirits. They reside in forests, stupas, mountain valleys, and empty palaces. Those with no authoritative power live on all four continents except for Uttarakuru. Those with authoritative power may also be found in the heavens and on two of the five-hundred islands that lie to the west of Jambudvipa. One island holds their castle while the other holds the castle of those ghosts with no authority.
 
Gaki zōshi 餓鬼草紙 "Scroll of Hungry Ghosts", a gaki condemned to shit-eating watches a child wearing geta and holding a chūgi, c. 12th century.

Sixteen hungry ghosts are said to live in hell or in a region of hell. Unlike other hell dwellers, they can leave hell and wander. They look through garbage and human waste on the outskirts of human cities. They are said to be invisible during the daylight hours but visible at night. Some hungry ghosts can only eat corpses, or their food is burnt up in their mouths, sometimes they have a big belly and a neck as thin as a needle (this image is the basic one for hungry ghosts in Asian Buddhism).[9]

According to the Saddharmasmṛtyupasthāna Sūtra, there are thirty-six different types of hungry ghost.

 

Interpretation

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Depiction

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The depictions and stories about hungry ghosts especially in the early Indian context can show the viewer a commentary about the "manual scavengers", members of the lowest caste in India. They are regarded as people whose bad stigma comes from their birth and the group they belong to. They represent a group of starving people who are wandering the outside of cities, are homeless and hungry. As most people have adopted an ingrained blindness to this underclass.[34][32]

Furthermore, the bodies of hungry ghosts bear similarities with humans who are deprived of food. This malnourishment causes a disorder known as kwashiorkor that encompasses symptoms like stomach bloating from fluid retention, hair and tooth loss and dry and cracked skin. These people have skeletal like figures and big stomachs.[35]

Looking at these hungry ghosts and their figure one might interpret hungry ghosts as teachers. They do not teach the causes of karma like solitary buddhas, however, instead of words with their bodies.[36][37] Their whole body embodies suffering (dukkha) to such an extend that seeing them gives the viewer the chance to witness the truth of dukkha.[38]

The Body of the Hungry Ghost as Hell

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The realm of the hungry ghosts is just one above that of the beings in naraka, however, while the hungry ghosts are not directly in hell their body is constituted by a hunger that they cannot satisfy due to the nature of their bodies, having big bellies and the throat of a needle. Whereas the hell have walls that keep the beings in a permanent state of torture, the body of the hungry ghosts is like a hell because they cannot escape their bodies, free to wander the world at will.[39]

In Buddhist Philosophy

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Vasubandhu, a monk who was one of the founders of the Yogācāra-school of Buddhism, used hungry ghosts in his argumentation of the Mahāyāna thought that "everything in the three realms is nothing but appearance." He argues against the objective reality of external objects (physical and non-physical) by asserting that the appariance of external objects is mind-dependent, as they happen to be different at specific times and places across different minds. Since different minds encounter the same objects differently, similar to dreams, these objects do not need to have a physical reality.

The author offers an example about a river perceived as clear by humans, but full of pus by hungry ghosts. Thus, the appearances of external objects across different minds is distinct. By that, the author establishes an argument for a lack of substantial reality among external objects.[40][41]

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丁寧な暮らしをする餓鬼 ("The Hungry Ghost who leads a polite life"): This three volume work explores the life of an hungry ghost who, unlike others of their kind, is very compassionate and pure-hearted. They spend half a day grinding coffee beans in a mortar, folding plastic bags into triangles, sweeping up leaves, and so on.[42]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Rotman, Andy (2021): Hungry Ghosts. Somerville: Wisdom Publications. P. 16.
  2. ^ a b c Venerable Yin-shun. The Way to Buddhahood. Massachusetts: Wisdom Publications: 1998.
  3. ^ "目次：冥報記白話". www.bfnn.org.
  4. ^ a b c d e Eberhard, Stephen F. The Ghost Festival in Medieval China. New Jersey: Princeton University Press: 1988. Hungry ghosts, by contrast, are a much more exceptional case, and would only occur in very unfortunate circumstances, such as if a whole family were killed or when a family no longer venerated their ancestors.
  5. ^ Avadānaśataka 244. 14.
  6. ^ Roth (2021): p. 16.
  7. ^ Jones, J. J. 1949–56. Thee Mahāvastu. 3 vols. London: Luzac and Company. pp. 22—24.
  8. ^ Oldstone-Moore, Jennifer. Taoism. USA: Oxford University Press: 2003.
  9. ^ a b Baroni, Helen J. Ph.D. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Zen Buddhism. New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, Incorporated: 2002.
  10. ^ Gregory, Peter N., ed. Inquiry Into the Origin of Humanity. Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press: 1995.
  11. ^ Gethin, Rupert (1998): The Foundations of Buddhism. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 121.
  12. ^ Stuart, Daniel Malinowski. 2012. “A Less Traveled Path: Meditation and Textual Practice in the Saddharmasmṛtyupasthāna(sūtra).” PhD dissertation, University of California–Berkeley. P. 50.
  13. ^ a b c d Eberhard, Wolfram. Chinese Festivals. New York: Abelard-Schuman Ltd.: 1958.
  14. ^ More specifically mātsarya means meanness in two senses: first the unwilligness to share and other characteristics like being unfair, unkind and spiteful. (Rothman, 16)
  15. ^ Rothman (2021): 15—16.
  16. ^ Avadānaśataka: 245.7, i 248.10, i 255.11–12, i 260.10, and i 273.12–13. Cf. i 266.4.
  17. ^ Rotman (2021): 16—18.
  18. ^ Buddhism-dict.net (accessed: October 18, 2007)
  19. ^ Martin, Emily; Emíly M. Ahern (1973). The cult of the dead in a Chinese village. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-0835-7.
  20. ^ Stephen F. Teiser (1996). The Ghost Festival in Medieval China. Princeton University Press.
  21. ^ a b "Hungry Ghost Festival". Essortment, 2002. Retrieved October 20, 2008.
  22. ^ Orzech, Charles D. (1989). "Seeing Chen-Yen Buddhism: Traditional Scholarship and the Vajrayāna in China". History of Religions. 29 (2): 87–114. doi:10.1086/463182. ISSN 0018-2710. JSTOR 1062679. S2CID 162235701.87-114&rft.date=1989&rft.issn=0018-2710&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162235701#id-name=S2CID&rft_id=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1062679#id-name=JSTOR&rft_id=info:doi/10.1086/463182&rft.aulast=Orzech&rft.aufirst=Charles D.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Hungry ghost" class="Z3988">
  23. ^ "お問い合わせ". Archived from the original on 2019-07-05. Retrieved 2019-07-05.
  24. ^ a b c d e "Ghost Festival" ChinaVoc 2001-2007, "Chinese Festivals - the Ghost Festival". Archived from the original on 2009-06-08. Retrieved 2009-02-16..
  25. ^ a b "Zhongyua Festival - Hungry Ghost Festival". China Daily. 2004 Aug 30. Retrieved 2008 Oct 20. [1]
  26. ^ DeBernardi, Jean Elizabeth, and Jean DeBernardi. Rites of Belonging: Memory, Moderninity & Identity in a Malaysian Chinese Community. Stanford: Stanford University Press 2004.
  27. ^ E.g. Mark Epstein in Thoughts Without a Thinker, pp. 29, 30, ISBN 0-465-08585-7, of the compulsive infidelity of a patient.
  28. ^ Wangchen Rinpoche: Buddhist Fasting Practice. The Nyungne Method of Thousand-Armed Chenrezig. Snow Lion Publication, Ithaca/New York 2009, P. 97.
  29. ^ Hungry Ghosts Scroll Kyoto 1
  30. ^ LaFleur, William. R. 1989. “Hungry Ghosts and Hungry People: Somaticity and Rationality in Medieval Japan.” In Fragments for a History of the Human Body, edited by Michael Feher, 270–303. New York: Zone Publications. P. 274.
  31. ^ LaFleur (1989): 286–87.
  32. ^ a b LaFleur (1989): 278.
  33. ^ Stuart, Daniel Malinowski (2012): A Less Traveled Path: Meditation and Textual Practice in the Saddharmasmṛtyupasthānasūtra. PhD Dissertation, University of California.
  34. ^ Srivastava, B. N. 1997. Manual Scavenging in India: A Disgrace to the Country. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company. P. 10.
  35. ^ LaFleur (1989): 297.
  36. ^ Divyāvadāna 296.12–13, kāyikī dharmadeśanā na vācikī. See too Divyāvadāna 133.7 and 313.12; Mūlasarvāstivāda-vinaya (Dutt 1984, iii 1, 232.5–6 and 252.3–4); and Saṅghabhedavastu ii 46.
  37. ^ Rotman (2021): 54.
  38. ^ Rotman (2021): 55.
  39. ^ LaaFleur (1989): 274.
  40. ^ Lévi, Sylvain (1925). Vijñaptimātratāsiddhi: Deux Traités de Vasubandhu: Viṃśatikā (La Vingtaine), Accompagnée d'une explication en prose, et Triṃśikā (La Trentaine), avec le Commentaire de Sthiramati [Twenty Verses with Auto-Commentary]. Translated by Nilanjan Das. Paris: Libraire Ancienne Honore Champion. pp. 2–4.2-4&rft.pub=Libraire Ancienne Honore Champion&rft.date=1925&rft.aulast=Lévi&rft.aufirst=Sylvain&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Hungry ghost" class="Z3988">
  41. ^ Thakchoe, Sonam, "The Theory of Two Truths in India", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2022 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2022/entries/twotruths-india/>.
  42. ^ "ピッコマ｜無料漫画・小説、新作コミックが毎日楽しめる！".
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