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Enewetak Atoll

(Redirected from Eniwetok Proving Ground)

Enewetak Atoll (/ɛˈniːwəˌtɔːk, ˌɛnɪˈwiːtɔːk/;[2] also spelled Eniwetok Atoll or sometimes Eniewetok; Marshallese: Ānewetak, [ænʲeːwɛːdˠɑk], or Āne-wātak, [ænʲeːwæːdˠɑk];[3] known to the Japanese as Brown Atoll or Brown Island; Japanese: ブラウン環礁) is a large coral atoll of 40 islands in the Pacific Ocean and with its 296 people (as of 2021)[1] forms a legislative district of the Ralik Chain of the Marshall Islands. With a land area total less than 5.85 square kilometers (2.26 sq mi),[1] it is no higher than 5 meters (16.4 ft) and surrounds a deep central lagoon, 80 kilometers (50 mi) in circumference. It is the second-westernmost atoll of the Ralik Chain and is 305 kilometers (190 mi) west from Bikini Atoll.

Enewetak
Landsat 8 satellite image of Enewetak Atoll. The crater formed by the Ivy Mike nuclear test can be seen near the north cape of the atoll, with the smaller Castle Nectar crater adjoining it.
Map of the Marshall Islands highlighting the Enewetak Atoll in red
Enewetak is located in Marshall Islands
Enewetak
Enewetak
Geography
LocationNorth Pacific
Coordinates11°30′N 162°20′E / 11.500°N 162.333°E / 11.500; 162.333
ArchipelagoRalik
Total islands40
Area5.85 km2 (2.26 sq mi)[1]
Highest elevation5 m (16 ft)
Administration
Demographics
Population296 (2021)[1]
Ethnic groupsMarshallese
Map of Enewetak Atoll
Aerial view of Enewetak and Parry

It was held by the Japanese from 1914 until its capture by the United States in February 1944 during World War II, then became Naval Base Eniwetok. Nuclear testing by the US totaling the equivalent of over 30 megatons of TNT took place during the Cold War; in 1977–1980, a concrete dome (the Runit Dome) was built on Runit Island to deposit radioactive soil and debris.[4]

The Runit Dome is deteriorating and could be breached by a typhoon, though the sediments in the lagoon are even more radioactive than those which are contained.[5]

Etymology

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The U.S. government referred to the atoll as "Eniwetok" until 1974, when it changed its official spelling to "Enewetak" (along with many other Marshall Islands place names, to more properly reflect their pronunciation by the Marshall Islanders[6]).

Geography

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Enewetak Atoll formed atop a seamount. The seamount was formed in the late Cretaceous.[7] This seamount is now about 1,400 meters (4,600 ft) below sea level.[8] It is made of basalt, and its depth is due to a general subsidence of the entire region and not because of erosion.[9]

Enewetak has a mean elevation above sea level of 3 meters (9.8 ft).[10]

History

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Humans have inhabited the atoll since about 1,000 B.C.[11]

The islands were first settled by Austronesian islanders.

The first European colonizers to Enewetak, Spanish explorer Álvaro de Saavedra Cerón, arrived on 10 October 1529.[12][13] He called the island "Los Jardines" (The Gardens). In 1794, sailors aboard the British merchant sloop Walpole called the islands "Brown's Range" (thus, the Japanese name "Brown Atoll"). It was visited by about a dozen ships before the establishment of the German colony of the Marshall Islands in 1885.[14]

World Wars I and II

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With the rest of the Marshalls, Enewetak was captured by the Imperial Japanese Navy in 1914, during World War I and mandated to the Empire of Japan by the League of Nations in 1920. The Japanese administered the island under the South Seas Mandate, but mostly left affairs in hands of traditional local leaders until the start of World War II. The atoll, together with other parts of Marshall Islands located to the west of 164°E, was placed under the governance of Pohnpei district during the Japanese administration period, separately from the rest of the Marshall Islands.[15]

 
Fighting on Enewetak Atoll in WW2

In November 1942, the Japanese built an airfield on Engebi Island. As they used it only for refueling planes between Truk and islands to the east, no aviation personnel were stationed there and the island had only token defenses. When the Gilberts fell to the United States, the Imperial Japanese Army assigned defense of the atoll to the 1st Amphibious Brigade, formed from the 3rd Independent Garrison, which had previously been stationed in Manchukuo. The 1st Amphibious Brigade arrived on January 4, 1944. Some 2,586 of its 3,940 men were left to defend Eniwetok Atoll, supplemented by aviation personnel, civilian employees, and laborers. However, they were unable to finish the fortifications before the American attack came in February. During the ensuing Battle of Eniwetok, the Americans captured Enewetak in a five-day amphibious operation. Fighting mainly took place on Engebi Islet, site of the most important Japanese installation, although some combat occurred on the main islet of Enewetak itself and on Parry Island, where there was a Japanese seaplane base.

Following its capture, the anchorage at Enewetok became a major US Naval Advance Base with Service Squadron 4 and Service Squadron 10 stationed in the lagoon. The daily average of ships present during the first half of July 1944 was 488; during the second half of July, the daily average number of ships at Enewetak was 283.[16] Naval Base Eniwetok was part of the vast Naval Base Marshall Islands. US Navy Seabees of the 110th Naval Construction Battalion arrived on February 21 and 27 to begin construction of Stickell Field.[17] It had two taxiways and a 6,800-by-400-foot (2,070 by 120 m) runway.[17] In June 1945, the 67th CB arrived to build a 35,000 man recreation center to be turned over to CBMU 608.[17]

In 1950, John C. Woods, who executed the Nazi war criminals convicted at the Nuremberg Trials, was accidentally electrocuted there.

Nuclear weapons testing

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After the end of World War II, Enewetak came under the control of the United States as part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, until the independence of the Marshall Islands in 1986. During its tenure, the United States evacuated the local residents many times, often involuntarily.[citation needed] The atoll was used for nuclear testing, as part of the Pacific Proving Grounds. Before testing commenced, the U.S. exhumed the bodies of United States servicemen killed in the Battle of Enewetak and returned them to the United States to be re-buried by their families. 43[a] nuclear tests were fired at Enewetak from 1948 to 1958.[20]

The first hydrogen bomb test, code-named Ivy Mike, occurred in late 1952 as part of Operation Ivy; it vaporized the islet of Elugelab, It also created two new elements : Fermium and Einsteinium. This test included B-17 Flying Fortress drones to fly through the radioactive cloud to test onboard samples. B-17 mother ships controlled the drones while flying within visual distance of them. In all, 16 to 20 B-17s took part in this operation, of which half were controlling aircraft and half were drones. To examine the explosion clouds of the nuclear bombs in 1957/58, several rockets (mostly from rockoons) were launched. One USAF airman Jimmy Robinson was lost at sea during the tests. Robinson's F-84 Thunderjet crashed and sank 3.5 miles (5.6 km) short of the island. Robinson's body was never recovered.[21][22][23]

 
Aerial view of the Runit Dome. The dome is placed in the crater created by the "Cactus" nuclear weapons test in 1958.

Radiological cleanup

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A radiological survey of Enewetak was conducted from 1972 to 1973.[24] In 1977, the United States military began decontamination of Enewetak and other islands. During the three-year, US$100 million cleanup process, the military mixed more than 80,000 cubic meters (100,000 cu yd) of contaminated soil and debris[25] from the islands with Portland cement and buried it in an atomic blast crater on the northern end of the atoll's Runit Island.[26][b] The material was placed in the 9.1-meter (30 ft) deep, 110-meter (360 ft) wide crater created by the May 5, 1958, "Cactus" nuclear weapons test. A dome composed of 358 concrete panels, each 46 centimeters (18 in) thick, was constructed over the material. The final cost of the cleanup project was US$239 million.[25] The United States government declared the southern and western islands in the atoll safe for habitation in 1980,[c] and residents of Enewetak returned that same year.[27] The military members who participated in that cleanup mission are suffering from many health issues, but the U.S. Government refused to provide health coverage[28] until 2022 with the passage of the Honoring our PACT Act.[29]

The 2000 environmental restoration award included funds for additional cleanup of radioactivity on Enewetak. Rather than scrape the topsoil off, replace it with clean topsoil, and create another radioactive waste repository dome at some site on the atoll (a project estimated to cost US$947 million), most areas still contaminated on Enewetak were treated with potassium.[d] Soil that could not be effectively treated for human use was removed and used as fill for a causeway connecting the two main islands of the atoll (Enewetak and Parry). The cost of the potassium decontamination project was US$103.3 million.[30]

A report by the US Congressional Research Service projects that the majority of the atoll will be fit for human habitation by 2026–2027, after nuclear decay, de-contamination and environmental remediation efforts create sufficient dose reductions.[31] However, in November 2017, the Australian Broadcasting Corporation reported that rising sea levels caused by climate change are seeping inside the dome, causing radioactive material to leak out.[32]

U.S. relations with Marshall Islands

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Section 177 of the 1983 Compact of Free Association between the governments of the United States and the Marshall Islands[33] establishes a process for Marshallese to make a claim against the United States government as a result of damage and injury caused by nuclear testing. That same year, an agreement was signed to implement Section 177, which established a US$150 million trust fund. The fund was intended to generate US$18 million a year, which would be payable to claimants on an agreed-upon schedule. If the US$18 million a year generated by the fund was not enough to cover claims, the principal of the fund could be used.[34][30] A Marshall Islands Nuclear Claims Tribunal was established to adjudicate claims. In 2000, the tribunal made a compensation award to the people of Enewetak consisting of US$107.8 million for environmental restoration; US$244 million in damages to cover economic losses caused by loss of access and use of the atoll; and US$34 million for hardship and suffering.[30] In addition, as of the end of 2008, another US$96.658 million in individual damage awards were made. Only US$73.526 million of the individual claims award has been paid, however, and no new awards were made between the end of 2008 and May 2010.[30] Due to stock market losses, payments rates that have outstripped fund income, and other issues, the fund was nearly exhausted, as of May 2010, and unable to make any additional awards or payments.[30] A lawsuit by Marshallese arguing that "changed circumstances" made Nuclear Claims Tribunal unable to make just compensation was dismissed by the Supreme Court of the United States in April 2010.[35]

Education

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Marshall Islands Public School System operates Enewetak Elementary School.[36] Marshall Islands High School on Majuro serves the community.[37]

Eniwetok Airfield

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Main article: Enewetak Auxiliary Airfield

Men from the 110th Naval Construction Battalion arrived on Eniwetok between 21 and 27 February 1944 and began clearing the island for construction of a bomber airfield. A 2,100-meter (6,900 ft) by 120-meter (390 ft) runway with taxiways and supporting facilities was built. The first plane landed on 11 March. By 5 April the first operational bombing mission was conducted.[38] The base was later named for Lieutenant John H. Stickell.[39][40]

In mid-September 1944 operations at Wrigley Airfield on Engebi Island were transferred to Eniwetok.[41]

US Navy and Marine units based at Eniwetok included:

  • VB-102 operating PB4Y-1s from 12–27 August 1944[42]
  • VB-108 operating PB4Y-1s from 11 April-10 July 1944[43]
  • VB-109 operating PB4Y-1s from 5 April-14 August 1944[44]
  • VB-116 operating PB4Y-1s from 7 July-27 August 1944[45]
  • VPB-121 operating PB4Y-1s from 1 March-3 July 1945[46]
  • VPB-144 operating PV-2s from 27 June 1945 until September 1946[47]

The airstrip is now abandoned and its surface partially covered by sand.

Parry Island seaplane base

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The Imperial Japanese Navy had developed a seaplane base on Parry Island. Following its capture on 22 February, Seabee's from the 110th Naval Construction Battalion expanded the base, building a coral-surfaced parking area and shops for minor aircraft and engine overhaul. A marine ways was installed on a Japanese pier and boat-repair shops were also erected.[38]

US Navy and Marine units based at Parry Island included:

  • VP-13 operating PB2Y-3s from 26 February-22 June 1944[48]
  • VP-16 operating PBM-3Ds from 7 June-1 August 1944[48]
  • VP-21 operating PBM-3Ds from 19 August-17 October 1944 and from 15 July-11 September 1945[49]
  • VP-23 operating PBY-5As from 20 August 1944 – 9 April 1945[50]
  • VP-MS-6 operating PBM-5Es from 1 February 1948 in support of Operation Sandstone[51]
  • VP-102 operating PB2Y-3s from 3 February-30 August 1944[52]
  • VP-202 operating PBM-3Ds from 24 February-1 March 1944[53]
  • VPB-19 operating PBM-3Ds from 2 November 1944 – 12 February 1945 and 6 March 1945-January 1946[54]
  • VPB-22 operating PBM-3Ds from 10 October-30 November 1944 and from 25 June-7 August 1945[55]

List of nuclear tests at Eniwetok

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Summary

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Nuclear Tests on and around Enewetak Atoll
Series Start Date End Date Count Yield Range Total Yield
Sandstone 14 April 1948 14 May 1948 3 18 - 49 kilotons 104 kilotons
Greenhouse 7 April 1951 4 May 1951 4 45.5-225 kilotons 396.5 kilotons
Ivy 31 October 1952 15 November 1952 2 500 kilotons - 10.4 megatons 10.9 megatons
Castle 13 May 1954 13 May 1954 1 110 kilotons - 15 megatons 48 megatons
Redwing 4 May 1956 21 July 1956 11 190 tons - 1.9 megatons ~2.61 megatons
Hardtack I 5 April 1958 18 August 1958 22 Zero - 8.9 megatons 16.1 megatons
Total (on Enewetak)     43[31]   Approx 31.8 megatons (almost 6% of total test yield worldwide)

Operation Sandstone

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Test shot Date Location Yield
X-Ray 18:17 14 April 1948 (GMT) Enjebi Islet 37 kt
Yoke 18:09 30 April 1948 (GMT) Aomon Islet 49 kt
Zebra 18:04 14 May 1948 (GMT) Runit Islet 18 kt

Operation Greenhouse

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Test shot Date Location Yield
Dog 18:34 7 April 1951 (GMT) Runit Islet 81 kt
Easy 18:26 20 April 1951 (GMT) Enjebi Islet 47 kt
George 21:30 8 May 1951 (GMT) Eberiru Islet 225 kt
Item 18:17 24 May 1951 (GMT) Enjebi Islet 45.5 kt

Operation Ivy

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Test shot Date Location Yield
Mike 19:14:59.4 31 October 1952 (GMT) Elugelab Islet 10.4 Mt
King 23:30 15 November 1952 (GMT) Runit Islet 500 kt

Operation Castle

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Test shot Date Location Yield
Nectar 18:00 13 May 1954 UTC Off Bogon Islet near Ivy Mike crater 1.69 Mt

Operation Redwing

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Test shot Date Location Yield
Lacrosse 18:25 4 May 1956 (GMT) Runit Islet 40 kt
Yuma 19:56 27 May 1956 (GMT) Aomon Islet 0.19 kt
Erie 18:15 30 May 1956 (GMT) Runit Islet 14.9 kt
Seminole 00:55 6 June 1956 (GMT) Bogon Islet 13.7 kt
Blackfoot 18:26 11 June 1956 (GMT) Runit Islet 8 kt
Kickapoo 23:26 13 June 1956 (GMT) Aomon Islet 1.49 kt
Osage 01:14 16 June 1956 (GMT) Runit Islet 1.7 kt
Inca 21:26 21 June 1956 (GMT) Rujoru Islet 15.2 kt
Mohawk 18:06 2 July 1956 (GMT) Eberiru Islet 360 kt
Apache 18:06 8 July 1956 (GMT) near Ivy Mike crater 1.9 Mt
Huron 18:12 21 July 1956 (GMT) Off Flora Islet 250 kt

Operation Hardtack I

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Test shot Date Location Yield
Yucca 18:15 28 April 1958 (GMT) 157 km N of Eniwetok Atoll[e] 1.7 kt
Cactus 18:15 5 May 1958 (GMT) Runit Islet 18 kt
Butternut 18:15 11 May 1958 (GMT) Eniwetok Atoll 81 kt
Koa 18:30 12 May 1958 (GMT) Eniwetok Atoll 1370 kt
Wahoo 01:30 16 May 1958 (GMT) Eniwetok Atoll 9 kt
Holly 18:30 20 May 1958 (GMT) Eniwetok Atoll 5.9 kt
Yellowwood 2:00 26 May 1958 (GMT) Eniwetok Lagoon 330 kt
Magnolia 18:00 26 May 1958 (GMT) Eniwetok Atoll 57 kt
Tobacco 02:50 30 May 1958 (GMT) Eniwetok Atoll 11.6 kt
Rose 18:45 2 June 1958 (GMT) Eniwetok Atoll 15 kt
Umbrella 23:15 8 June 1958 (GMT) Eniwetok Lagoon 8 kt
Walnut 18:30 14 June 1958 (GMT) Eniwetok Atoll 1.45 kt
Linden 03:00 18 June 1958 (GMT) Eniwetok Atoll 11 kt
Elder 18:30 27 June 1958 (GMT) Eniwetok Atoll 880 kt
Oak 19:30 28 June 1958 (GMT) Eniwetok Lagoon 8.9 Mt
Sequoia 18:30 1 July 1958 (GMT) Eniwetok Atoll 5.2 kt
Dogwood 18:30 5 July 1958 (GMT) Eniwetok Atoll 397 kt
Scaevola 04:00 14 July 1958 (GMT) Eniwetok Atoll 0 kt
Pisonia 23:00 17 July 1958 (GMT) Eniwetok Atoll 255 kt
Olive 18:15 22 July 1958 (GMT) Eniwetok Atoll 202 kt
Pine 20:30 26 July 1958 (GMT) Eniwetok Atoll 2000 kt
Quince 02:15 6 August 1958 (GMT) Eniwetok Atoll 0 kt
Fig 04:00 18 August 1958 (GMT) Eniwetok Atoll 0.02 kt
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  •  
    Battle of Eniwetok
  •  
    B-17 drone at Eniwetok Airfield in 1948 for Operation Sandstone
  •  
    Operation Sandstone
  •  
    Ivy Mike test, October 31, 1952
  •  
    Operation Greenhouse test
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    Ivy King test, November 1952
  •  
    Test shot Seminole of Operation Redwing, conducted on the coast of the island of Bogon
  •  
    Red-wing Seminole test
  •  
    Hardtack Umbrella test
  • Video clips of three test nuclear explosions in Eniwetok, Marshall Islands
  • Test shot Nectar of Operation Castle produced a yield of 1.69 megatons and was detonated just north east of Ivy Mike's Elugelab crater. The Island of Bogon is the spearhead shaped object at the bottom right of the screen, as it was before the Redwing Seminole test was conducted on that island.

Missile Impact Location System

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From 1958 through 1960 the United States installed the Missile Impact Location System (MILS) in the Navy managed Pacific Missile Range, later the Air Force managed Western Range, to localize the splash downs of test missile nose cones. MILS was developed and installed by the same entities that had completed the first phase of the Atlantic and U.S. West Coast SOSUS systems. A MILS installation, consisting of both a target array for precision location and a broad ocean area system for good positions outside the target area, was installed at Eniwetok as part of the system supporting Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM) tests. Other Pacific MILS shore terminals were at the Marine Corps Air Station Kaneohe Bay supporting Intermediate Range Ballistic Missile (IRBM) tests with impact areas northeast of Hawaii and the other ICBM test support systems at Midway Island and Wake Island.[57][58][59]

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Notes

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  1. ^ There is a discrepancy related to the total number of tests conducted: 42 or 43. The total number is 43, but two tests (HARDTACK I SCAEVOLA and HARDTACK I QUINCE) were with zero yield: one was a safety test, the other did not work out.[18] And sometimes one of them doesn't count. Another source of this discrepancy is the widely cited article by Simon and Robison, the summary of which lists the total number of tests conducted at Enewetak Atoll as 42 (including two tests with zero yield), although the attached table lists data for all 43 tests.[19]
  2. ^ A 15 kiloton nuclear weapon exploded but did not undergo nuclear fission on Runit, scattering plutonium over the island. Runit Island is not habitable for the next 24,000 years, which is why it was chosen for the nuclear waste repository. See: Wargo, John. Green Intelligence: Creating Environments That Protect Human Health. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2009, p. 15.
  3. ^ The government said that the northern islands would not be safe for inhabitation until 2010. See: Johnson, Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, p. 25.
  4. ^ Cesium, which is highly radioactive, is chemically similar to potassium. Since the atoll is deficient in potassium, plants absorb cesium from the ground instead. This makes the plants inedible. Cesium also is deposited in the muscles of the human body, just as potassium is. See: Firth, Stewart (1987). Nuclear Playground. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. p. 36. ISBN 0824811445.
  5. ^ The Hardtack I Yucca test was conducted using a stratospheric balloon. The ship with this balloon departed from Bikini Atoll. The launch of this balloon was made between Enewetak and Bikini Atolls, slightly closer to Bikini. The surface zero was closer to Enewetak Atoll. Therefore this test can only be conditionally classified as a test performed at Enewetak Atoll.[56]

References

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  1. ^ a b c d Brinkhoff, Thomas (2022-06-11). "Marshall Islands". City Population. Retrieved 2023-01-19.
  2. ^ "Eniwetok". Lexico UK English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on March 22, 2020.
  3. ^ "Marshallese-English Dictionary - Place Name Index". www.trussel2.com.
  4. ^ "Enewetak Atoll – nuclear trash can of the pacific – UTAOT". www.utaot.com. Archived from the original on 2013-05-24. Retrieved 2013-04-14.
  5. ^ A Pacific isle radioactive and forgotten, The New York Times, Michael B. Gerrard, December 3, 2014. Retrieved 19 September 2016.
  6. ^ Hacker, Barton C. (1994). Elements of controversy : the Atomic Energy Commission and radiation safety in nuclear weapons testing, 1947–1974. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. p. 14. ISBN 0520083237.
  7. ^ Clouard, Valerie; Bonneville, Alain (2005). "Ages of Seamounts, Islands and Plateaus on the Pacific Plate". In Foulger, Gillian R.; Natland, James H.; Presnall, Dean C.; et al. (eds.). Plates, Plumes, and Paradigms. Boulder, Colo.: Geological Society of America. pp. 71–90 [p. 80]. ISBN 0813723884.
  8. ^ Ludwig, K. R.; Halley, R. B.; Simmons, K. R.; Peterman, Z. E. (1988). "Strontium-Isotope Stratigraphy of Enewetak Atoll". Geology. 16 (2): 173–177 [p. 173–174]. Bibcode:1988Geo....16..173L. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1988)016<0173:SISOEA>2.3.CO;2.
  9. ^ Schlanger, S. O.; Campbell, J. F.; Jackson, M. W. (1987). "Post-Eocene subsidence of the Marshall Islands Recorded By Drowned Atolls on Harrie and Sylvania Guyots". In Keating, B. H.; et al. (eds.). Seamounts, Islands, and Atolls. Geophysical Monograph Series. Vol. 43. Washington, D.C.: American Geophysical Union. pp. 165–174 [p. 173]. ISBN 0875900682.
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  12. ^ Hezel 1994, p. 16-17.
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  14. ^ Churchill, William (1920). "Germany's Lost Pacific Empire". Geographical Review. 10 (2): 84–90. Bibcode:1920GeoRv..10...84C. doi:10.2307/207706. JSTOR 207706.
  15. ^ "昔はサイパンもパラオも「日本」だった ── 日本の南洋群島統治". teikoku-denmo.jp.
  16. ^ Carter, Worrall Reed. Beans, Bullets, and Black Oil: The Story of Fleet Logistics Afloat in the Pacific During World War II. Washington, D.C.: Department of the Navy, 1953, p. 163.
  17. ^ a b c Chapter XXVII Bases in the Central Pacific, Building the Navy's Bases in World War II, History of the Bureau of Yards and Docks and the Civil Engineer Corps, 1940-1946, Volume II, UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON, 1947, p.325 [1]
  18. ^ "Operation HARDTACK I" (PDF). Defense Threat Reduction Agency. September 2021. pp. 2–3. Retrieved 2024-07-29.
  19. ^ Simon, S.L.; Robison, W.L. (July 1997). "A Compilation of Nuclear Weapons Test Detonation Data for U.S Pacific Ocean Tests" (PDF). Health Physics. 73 (1): 258–64. doi:10.1097/00004032-199707000-00022. Archived from the original on November 10, 2004. Retrieved 2024-07-29.
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  22. ^ "F-84G-5-RE Thunderjet Serial Number 51-1040". Pacific Wrecks. Retrieved 9 January 2020.
  23. ^ Wolverton, Mark (2009). "Into the Mushroom Cloud: Most pilots would head away from a thermonuclear explosion". Air & Space Magazine (August). Smithsonian. Retrieved 9 January 2020.
  24. ^ Johnson, Giff (1980). "Paradise lost". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. 36 (10): 24–29. Bibcode:1980BuAtS..36j..24J. doi:10.1080/00963402.1980.11458792. ISSN 0096-3402.
  25. ^ a b Schwartz, Stephen I. (2011-12-01). Atomic Audit: The Costs and Consequences of U.S. Nuclear Weapons Since 1940. Brookings Institution Press. ISBN 978-0-8157-2294-6.
  26. ^ Johnson, Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, p. 24.
  27. ^ Linsley, Gordon. "Site Restoration and Cleanup of Contaminated Areas." In Current Trends in Radiation Protection: On the Occasion of the 11th International Congress of the International Radiation Protection Association, 23–28 May 2004, Madrid, Spain. Henri Métivier, Leopoldo Arranz, Eduardo Gallego, and Annie Sugier, eds. Les Ulis: EDP Sciences, 2004, p. 142.
  28. ^ Philipps, Dave (Jan 28, 2017). "Troops Who Cleaned Up Radioactive Islands Can't Get Medical Care". The New York Times.
  29. ^ Mohamed, Carlotta (August 12, 2022). "President Biden signs Queens lawmaker's bill into law to provide health care benefits for veterans exposed to radiation". QNS. Archived from the original on 2022-08-13.
  30. ^ a b c d e Graham, Bill. "Written Testimony of Bill Graham, Public Advocate (retired), Marshall Islands Nuclear Claims Tribunal." Subcommittee on Asia, the Pacific, and the Global Environment. Committee on Foreign Affairs. United States House of Representatives. May 20, 2010. Archived October 25, 2012, at the Wayback Machine Accessed 2012-11-01.
  31. ^ a b "Loss-of-Damages From U.S. Nuclear Testing in the Marshall Islands: Technical Analysis of the Nuclear Claims Tribunal Methodology and Alternative Estimate" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-08-06. Retrieved 2014-01-21.
  32. ^ Willacy, Mark (November 27, 2017). "A poison in tour island". ABC. Retrieved November 27, 2017.
  33. ^ The Compact was ratified by both nations in 1986.
  34. ^ Louka, Elli. Nuclear Weapons, Justice and the Law. Northampton, Mass.: Edward Elgar, 2011, p. 161-162.
  35. ^ Richey, Warren (April 5, 2010). "Supreme Court: No Review of Award for US Nuclear Weapons Tests". Christian Science Monitor.
  36. ^ "Public Schools Archived 2018-02-21 at the Wayback Machine." Marshall Islands Public School System. Retrieved on February 21, 2018.
  37. ^ "Annual Report 2011-2012 Archived 2018-02-22 at the Wayback Machine." Ministry of Education (Marshall Islands). Retrieved on February 22, 2018. p. 54 (PDF p. 55/118). "Marshall Islands High Schools [sic] takes students from Ratak Rak zone including schools in Majuro, Arno, Mili, and Enewetak/Mejatto."
  38. ^ a b Bureau of Yards and Docks 1947, p. 325.
  39. ^ Carey, Alan (1999). The Reluctant Raiders: The Story of United States Navy Bombing Squadron VB/VPB-109 During World War II. Schiffer Publishing. p. 64. ISBN 9780764307577.
  40. ^ Morison, Samuel (1975). History of United States Naval Operations in World War II. Volume VI: Aleutians, Gilberts and Marshalls, June 1942-April 1944. U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 306.
  41. ^ Bureau of Yards and Docks 1947, p. 326.
  42. ^ Roberts 2000, p. 135.
  43. ^ Roberts 2000, p. 186.
  44. ^ Roberts 2000, p. 522-3.
  45. ^ Roberts 2000, p. 623.
  46. ^ Roberts 2000, p. 544.
  47. ^ Roberts 2000, p. 35.
  48. ^ a b Roberts 2000, p. 410.
  49. ^ Roberts 2000, pp. 233–4.
  50. ^ Roberts 2000, p. 431.
  51. ^ Roberts 2000, p. 267.
  52. ^ Roberts 2000, p. 392.
  53. ^ Roberts 2000, p. 591.
  54. ^ Roberts 2000, p. 295.
  55. ^ Roberts 2000, p. 236.
  56. ^ "YUCCA NUCLEAR TEST". StratoCat. Retrieved 2024-07-29.
  57. ^ "Integrated Undersea Surveillance System (IUSS) History 1950 - 2010". IUSS/CAESAR Alumni Association. Retrieved 11 February 2020.
  58. ^ Subcommittee on Military Construction (March–April) (April 29, 1959). Military Construction Appropriations for 1960: Hearings. pp. 169–170. Retrieved 16 September 2020.
  59. ^ Subcommittee on Military Construction (May) (May 20, 1959). Military Construction Appropriations for 1960: Hearings. pp. 818, 824. Retrieved 16 September 2020.
  60. ^ Ballard 1964, p. 136.

Bibliography

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