Wikipedia

Australian Kriol

Australian Kriol, also known as Roper River Kriol, Fitzroy Valley Kriol, Northern Australian Creole or Aboriginal English,[4] is an English-based creole language that developed from a pidgin used initially in the region of Sydney and Newcastle in New South Wales, Australia, in the early days of European colonisation. Later, it was spoken by groups further west and north. The pidgin died out in most parts of the country, except in the Northern Territory, where the contact between European settlers, Chinese people and other Asian groups, and the Aboriginal Australians in the northern regions has maintained a vibrant use of the language, which is spoken by about 30,000 people. Despite its similarities to English in vocabulary, it has a distinct syntactic structure and grammar. It is a language in its own right and is distinct from Torres Strait Creole.

Australian Kriol
Native toAustralia
RegionRoper River, Katherine areas, Ngukurr, Northern Territory; Kimberley, Western Australia; Gulf Country, Lower Cape York Peninsula, Queensland
EthnicityAboriginal Australians
Native speakers
7,500 (2021 census)[1]
L2 speakers: 10,000 (1991)[2]
English Creole
  • Pacific
    • Australian Kriol
Early forms
Dialects
  • Roper River Kriol
  • Bamyili Creole
  • Barkly Kriol
  • Fitzroy Valley Kriol
  • Daly River Kriol
Kriol Alphabet based off of English Alphabet
Language codes
ISO 639-3rop
Glottologkrio1252
AIATSIS[3]P1
Linguasphere52-ABB-ca (varieties:
52-ABB-caa to -caf

History

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The first records of the progenitor to Kriol, a pidgin called Port Jackson Pidgin English, are found from the 1780s, with the pidgin being used for communication between the white settlers around Port Jackson and the local indigenous population.[5] European settlement in the Northern Territory was attempted over a period of about forty years. Settlement finally succeeded in 1870 with the founding of Darwin, and an influx of both English and Chinese speakers followed. To communicate between both groups and the local Aboriginal people, pidgins developed throughout the territory based on Port Jackson Pidgin English (PJPE). By 1900, PJPE had developed into Northern Territory Pidgin English (NTPE), which was widespread and well understood. Then, by 1908, NTPE would creolize into Australian Kriol.[6] This process of creolization entailed a massive increase in the lexicon as well as a complexification of the grammar of the language. Not all speakers of NTPE would switch over though as many after 1908 continued to speak NTPE.[7]

It creolized first in the Roper River Mission (Ngukurr), where cattle stations were established and a township developed.

During that period, relations between the native Australians and Europeans were strained and often violent. Aboriginal people fiercely defended their lands. However, the control of lands was eventually seized by the settlers when a cattle company acquired much of the area. The settlers became more determined to take full control of the land from the native people and carried out a campaign to do so.

The resettlements and land seizures that nearly annihilated the indigenous population were major factors in the development of the creole, as they created drastic social change.

Another factor in the development of Kriol was the establishment of a community of Anglican missionaries in the Roper River region in 1908. That brought together around 200 people from eight different aboriginal ethnic groups who spoke different native languages, although adult members of these groups were multilingual because of frequent meetings and ceremonies. Children from these groups were educated in English, necessitating use of a lingua franca. Children from these communities disseminated English features throughout their communities.

Although the relations between the missionaries and Aboriginal people were friendly, the missionaries were not responsible for the development of Kriol. In fact, they tried to introduce Standard English as the official language for the mission, which the Aboriginal children used in class and with the missionaries, but Kriol still flourished.

Kriol was not recognized as a language until the 1970s, as it was regarded as a dialect of English.

In her first speech in April 2013, Josie Farrer spoke in both Kriol and Gija, marking the first ever use of an indigenous language in the Western Australian Parliament.[8]

Morphology and syntax

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As a general rule, the grammar of Kriol is a simplified version of that found in English, meaning that it is analytic, with words generally having only one form and additional meaning derived not from changing words but from word order and added new words.[9]

Word order

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Kriol uses an SVO word order exclusively. In Kriol the order of possessor and possessum varies, with it being evenly split between possessor possessum and possessum possessor. In Kriol word order is evenly split between verb object adverb and Adverb verb object.[9] Word order is used over inflections or subject object affixation or verbs to specify meaning.[10]

Pronouns

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Kriol pronouns differentiate between different between first, second and third person, as well as between singular, plural, and dual plural inclusive and exclusive pronouns first person. The language also differentiates between subject, object, independent pronoun, and adnominal possessive. There are also reflexive and reciprocal pronouns.[11]

Singular Dual Plural
Inclusive Exclusive Inclusive Exclusive
1st Person mi yunmi mindubala wi mibala
2nd Person yu yundubala yundubala yubala yubala
3rd Person im dubala dubala olabat olabat

[7]

Verb morphology

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In Australian Kriol, many spatial words from English have been transformed into suffixes attached to verbs they interact with. The specific suffixes vary between dialects but remain mostly similar.[9]

Kriol suffix translation example translation
an on putiman put on
ap up klaimap climb up
(a)ran around lukaran look around
(a)wei away ranawei run away
at out, at kamat come out
bek back ranbek run back
dan down/over nakimdan knock over
oba/ova over guwoba go over
of/op/ap off gidof get off

Phonology

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Consonants[11]
Bilabial Labiodental Interdental Alveolar Retroflex Palatal Labiovelar Velar Glottal
Plosive Voiced b t̪ d ɖ c g
Voiceless p t ʈ k
Fricative f s ʃ h
Nasal m n ɳ ɲ ŋ
Lateral l ɭ ʎ
Trill/Tap r
Approximant ɻ j w
Vowels[11]
Front Central Back
Close i u
Mid e o
Open a

Austral Kriol also has 5 dipthongs: /ei/, /ai/, /ou/, /oi/, and /au/.[11]

Orthography

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The Kriol alphabet is based on the English alphabet, but varies not only in what letters and digraphs are used, but also in the rules for said letters and digraphs. Each phoneme in Kriol can only be made with one letter, unlike in English orthography, where several different spellings can be used to make the same sound. Kriol, unlike English, also uses a phonetic orthography in which words are spelled to match how they sound.[12]

The Kriol alphabet contains 21 letters: 11 consonant digraphs, 5 vowel digraphs and 5 punctuation marks.[12]

Letters: A, B, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, Q, R, S, T, U, W, Y

Consonant Digraphs: Ly, Ng, Ny, Rd, Rl, Rn, Rr, Rt, Sh, Th, Tj

Vowel Digraphs: Ai, Au, Ei, Oi, Ou

Punctuation Marks: Period (.), Comma (,), Question mark (?), Exclamation mark (!), Quotation marks (" ")

Dialects

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Dialects of Kriol include Roper River Kriol (Roper River Pidgin), Bamyili Creole (from the Barunga area), Barkly Kriol, Fitzroy Valley Kriol, and Daly River Kriol.[2] Of the various dialects, those spoken in the Roper River and Barunga area are best documented.[13] Kriol also varies on an acrolectic spectrum of dialects that are more similar to Australian Aboriginal English and those that differ more from it. More divergent dialects, referred to as Heavy Kriol, have more words from Australian Aboriginal languages as well as more divergent word order and a more divergent phonology. Less divergent dialects, referred to as Light Kriol, have more English suffixes, a less divergent phonology, and more English words as opposed to Aboriginal ones.[14]

Light vs Heavy Kriol
Light Kriol Heavy Kriol English
hed gabarra head
graul gula growl/tell off
daib dirwu dive
hosis hojij horses

Kriol is very widely spoken in the Katherine area, but there are minor differences between the varieties of Kriol spoken in particular areas. Some speakers of Kriol prefer to refer to their language by their unique name. However, the varieties are quite similar.

The differences are not actually that large. Mari Rhydwen compares the distinction to the distinction between American and British English.

Roper River (Ngukurr) Kriol is also spoken in Barunga, and in the Daly River area, a mutually intelligible variety is spoken, but Daly River speakers do not consider themselves to be Kriol speakers. There is the question of whether the varieties should be understood as different forms of Kriol to strengthen the identities of the respective regions, or seen as Kriol and potentially have a better chance of funding for bilingual education programs.

Creolization

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There is also a creole language based off a mix of Kriol and Gurindji called Gurndji Creole, which was formed by pervasive code switching between Kriol and Gurnidji by Gurnidji inhabitants of Victoria River District.[15] There is another Creole language called Light Warlpiri formed by rapid code-switching between Kriol, English, and Warlpiri by the inhabitants of the town of Lajamanu.[16]

Lexicon

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The primary contributing language of Kriol is English, but it has received and continues to receive influence from Chinese Pidgin English, Alawa, Marra, Ngalakgan, Wandarrang, Mangarrayi, Ngandi, Nunggubuyu, Jawoyn, Dalabon, Rembarrnga, Barunga, Jaminjung, Ngarinyman, Wardaman, Walmatjari, Djaru, Miriwoong, and Gija.[11]

Status

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The Kriol language, unlike many other aboriginal languages, is healthy, with most of its speakers under the age of 30. 99% of Kriol speakers are Australian Aboriginals, with only 0.8% being part of other groups. This shows that Kriol is an insider language only used within a community. Kriol speakers mainly use the language orally, with low literacy rates, though there are groups and initiatives working to increase the usage of Kriol literacy and usage in media by teaching Kriol literacy, creating new works in Kriol, and translating preexisting works into Kriol.[17][18]

There are various views and opinions on the Kriol language. Some deny that it is even its own language, simply referring to it as English or insisting those who speak Kriol are just speaking English poorly. Others view the language as a threat because it encroaches on other older aboriginal languages, while some take pride in it and try to support it. Government support for Kriol is limited, with there being only two bilingual language programs in Barunga and Ngukurr; though the one in Barunga has closed, they both successfully included Kriol as both a medium and an object of study.[18][17][19]

Media

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Located at the Museum of the Bible, a copy of the Australian Kriol Bible (Holi Baibul) is on display.

Many famous pieces of media such Shakespeare and Waltzing Matilda have been translated into Kriol, and many books have been published in Kriol. ABC and several other organizations currently make news in Kriol. Online there are several videos and texts available in Kriol, as well as resources for learning the language. There is also currently an Australian Kriol Wikipedia currently on the Wikimedia Incubator.

Bible translation

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On 5 May 2007, the first complete edition of the Bible in the Kriol language was launched at Katherine in the Northern Territory. Translation took over 29 years. It was undertaken by a team of native Kriol speakers led by Rev. Canon Gumbuli Wurrumara and specialists from the Society for Australian Indigenous Languages.

The Kriol Bible is the first complete edition of the Bible in any Indigenous Australian language. The publication was a joint venture of The Bible Society, Lutheran Bible Translators, The Church Missionary Society, the Anglican church, Wycliffe Bible Translators, and the Australian Society of Indigenous Languages.[20]

Sample text

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Genesis 1:1-2
Kriol[21][19] English[22][19]
Orait, longtaim wen God bin stat meigimbat ebrijing, nomo enijing bin jidan. Imbin jis eniwei, nomo garram enijing. Oni strongbala woda bin goran goran ebriwei, en imbin brabli dakbala, en det Spirit blanga God bin mubabat ontop langa det woda. In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth. Now the earth was formless and empty, darkness was over the surface of the deep, and the Spirit of God was hovering over the waters.
Wen ola bigini dun Kriol la skul, im album alabat jidan strongbala. La run 33 alabat bin dum profail, bla dalim wi "hu yu?". La Rum 12, alabat bin drodrobat alabat femili en raidimdan wani dei gulum alabat gada Kriol Our Kriol programs help students feel strong about themselves. In Room 33, students have been completing Kriol profiles about themselves while in Room 12, students did some great family portraits with all the labels in Kriol.

References

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  1. ^ Australian Bureau of Statistics (2021). "Cultural diversity: Census". Retrieved 13 October 2022.
  2. ^ a b Australian Kriol at Ethnologue (25th ed., 2022)  
  3. ^ P1 Australian Kriol at the Australian Indigenous Languages Database, Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies
  4. ^ The Atlas of Pidgin and Creole Language Structures. Oxford.
  5. ^ Sharpe, Margret C. Kriol - An Australian Language Resource. p. 178.
  6. ^ Harris, John W. (1 January 1988). "Northern Territory Pidgin English: A Lexical Study". English World-Wide. 9 (1): 77–99. doi:10.1075/eww.9.1.06har. ISSN 0172-8865.
  7. ^ a b Harris, John W. (1986). NORTHERN TERRITORY PIDGINS AND THE ORIGIN OF KRIOL. The Australian National University. pp. 302–304, 322.
  8. ^ Studies, Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander (5 August 2024). "Indigenous languages in Australian parliaments". aiatsis.gov.au. Retrieved 8 October 2024.
  9. ^ a b c "APiCS Online -". apics-online.info. Retrieved 17 August 2024.
  10. ^ Margaret, Sharpe (1978). Papers in Pidgin and Creole Linguistics (4th ed.). pp. 182–185.
  11. ^ a b c d e "APiCS Online - Survey chapter: Kriol". apics-online.info. Retrieved 26 June 2024.
  12. ^ a b Sandefur, John R. (1984). Work Papers of Sil-Aab. Summer Institute of Linguistics, Australian Aborigines Branch. pp. 69, 74–75. ISBN 0-86892-297-8.
  13. ^ Schultze-Berndt, Eva; Angelo, Denise (2013), "Kriol structure dataset", Atlas of Pidgin and Creole Language Structures Online, Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, retrieved 17 August 2024
  14. ^ Nicholls, Sophie (2009). Referring Expressions and Referential Practice in Roper Kriol (Northern Territory, Australia). pp. 22–23.
  15. ^ "UQ eSpace". espace.library.uq.edu.au. Retrieved 17 August 2024.
  16. ^ "A New Language Spoken By Just 350 People Has Evolved In Australia's Outback". IFLScience. 25 January 2024. Retrieved 15 September 2024.
  17. ^ a b "APiCS Online - Survey chapter: Kriol". apics-online.info. Retrieved 26 June 2024.
  18. ^ a b "2021 Census: Kriol a growing language - Meigim Kriol Strongbala". meigimkriolstrongbala.org.au/en_au/. Retrieved 15 August 2024.
  19. ^ a b c "While many Indigenous languages are disappearing, one has more speakers than ever". SBS News. Retrieved 15 August 2024.
  20. ^ Carroll, Peter J. 2004. From the beginning to Proverbs. The Bible Translator 55.4: 491–497.
  21. ^ "The Holy Bible in the Kriol language of Australia" (PDF). ebible.org.
  22. ^ "Bible Gateway passage: Genesis 1:1-2 - New International Version". Bible Gateway. Retrieved 24 June 2024.
  • Harris, John (1993) "Losing and gaining a language: the story of Kriol in the Northern Territory" in Walsh, M and Yallop, C (eds), Language and Culture in Aboriginal Australia, Aboriginal Studies Press, Canberra.
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Kriol test of Wikipedia at Wikimedia Incubator
 
Australian Kriol repository of Wikisource, the free library
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